Emergence and reduction in dynamical cognitive science

This paper examines the widespread intuition that the dynamical approach to cognitive science is importantly related to emergentism about the mind. The explanatory practices adopted by dynamical cognitive science rule out some conceptions of emergence; covering law explanations require a deducibility relationship between explanans and explanandum, whereas canonical theories of emergence require the absence of such deducibility. A response to this problem - one which would save the intuition that dynamics and emergence are related - is to reconstrue the concept of emergence as a relationship between laws. I call this “nomological emergence” and comment on the extent to which dynamicists would find it acceptable. Alternatively, dynamical cognitive science might be viewed as fitting better with the kind of “functional reductionism” which has recently been developed by authors such as Jaegwon Kim. Which of these two alternatives is preferable remains an open question pending the further development of dynamical cognitive science, particularly in its “non-classical” forms.     

不连续虚拟现实空间中的再定向

虚拟空间的特点之一是具有不连续性, 即在无连接型建筑单元的情况下各个单体间可直接通达的特性。本研究对人在不连续的虚拟空间中的再定向能力进行了探究, 将人类空间再定向能力的研究从现实空间延伸到了虚拟空间, 并研究了人在不同虚拟现实设备中的行为表现差异。结果表明, 人在不连续的虚拟空间中能完成再定向任务, 而虚拟空间中建筑单元的几何信息对人在不连续虚拟空间中的再定向表现无显著影响, 但被试在桌面式虚拟现实中的成绩显著高于在头盔式虚拟现实中的成绩。这些结果表明了人对不连续的虚拟空间的适应性。     

Multidimensional mapping of visual space with real and simulated stars

In each of five experiments Ss made direct assessments of interpoint distances within a stimulus configuration. A multidimensional scaling method was applied to make explicit the form of the subjective configuration. The stimulus configurations consisted of small light points arranged in a two- or three-dimensional array in a dark room, and of real stars in the sky. All the data were adequately accounted for by a configuration constructed in Euclidean space of the appropriate dimensionality. That was true even in the situation where alley experiments with the same Ss gave the result that is usually regarded as evidence for a hyperbolic binocular space. The Euclidean interpretation entails a more complicated form of correspondence between physical and visual spaces than the hyperbolic interpretation.     

Depth perception in virtual reality: distance estimations in peri- and extrapersonal space.

The present study investigated depth perception in virtual environments. Twenty-three participants verbally estimated ten distances between 40 cm and 500 cm in three different virtual environments in two conditions: (1) only one target was presented or (2) ten targets were presented at the same time. Additionally, the presence of a metric aid was varied. A questionnaire assessed subjective ratings about physical complaints (e.g., headache), the experience in the virtual world (e.g., presence), and the experiment itself (self-evaluation of the estimations). Results show that participants underestimate the virtual distances but are able to perceive the distances in the right metric order even when only very simple virtual environments are presented. Furthermore, interindividual differences and intraindividual stabilities can be found among participants, and neither the three different virtual environments nor the metric aid improved depth estimations. Estimation performance is better in peripersonal than in extrapersonal space. In contrast, subjective ratings provide a preferred space: a closed room with visible floor, ceiling, and walls.     

Avoidance based on shock intensity reduction with no change in shock probability

Rats were trained on a free-operant avoidance procedure in which shock intensity was controlled by interresponse time. Shocks were random at a density of about 10 shocks per minute. Shock probability was response independent. As long as interresponse times remained less than the limit in effect, any shocks received were at the lower of two intensities (0.75 mA). Whenever interresponse times exceeded the limit, any shocks received were at the higher intensity (1.6 mA). The initial limit of 15 seconds was decreased in 3-second steps to either 6 or 3 seconds. All animals lever pressed to avoid higher intensity shock. As the interresponse time limit was reduced, the response rate during the lower intensity shock and the proportion of brief interresponse times increased. Substantial warmup effects were evident, particularly at the shorter interresponse-time limits. Shock intensity reduction without change in shock probability was effective in the acquisition and maintenance of avoidance responding, as well as in differentiation of interresponse times. This research suggests limitations on the generality of a safety signal interpretation of avoidance conditioning.     

Computers and pedagogy: Replacing telling with interactive computer-programmed instruction

Programmed instruction has been overlooked as a way of implementing more intensive application of learning principles, possibly because it has not been well understood. Today, most of the hardware problems of past teaching machines have been solved. Instructors can now expand their effectiveness and productivity by shifting to the creation of both classroom tests and computer-interactive tutorials, a change that would leave more time for personal interaction with students. But a better understanding of the contingency of reinforcement and the science in which this concept has evolved is necessary. The computer as a teaching machine has yet to be fully exploited.     

Effects of self-motion on attention in real 3D space

Human behavioral space is three-dimensional (3D), and when moving through 3D space individuals selectively allocate their attention to acquire necessary information. This study aimed to examine the characteristics of attention in real 3D space when observers were moving forward. In static and self-motion situations, relative and absolute cues were used. Results indicated that internal representation for allocation of attention in 3D space is in depth-aware mode whether in static or moving condition. Moreover, near superior asymmetrical switching of attention is more strongly manifested under moving than under static conditions. Our findings indicate that focusing of attention by relative and absolute cues is maintained in self-motion, and that allocation of attention during movement is more viewer-centered than when observers are static.     

Quantum mechanics and violations of the sure-thing principle: The use of probability interference and other concepts

The use of quantum mechanical concepts in social science is a fairly new phenomenon. This paper uses one of quantum mechanics’ most basic concepts, probability interference, to explain the violation of an important decision theory principle (the ‘sure-thing principle’). We also attempt to introduce other quantum mechanical concepts in relation to the sure-thing principle violation.     

Sense of reality,reality testing and reality processing in borderline patients1

Although borderline patients are suitable for it, they often undergo repeated testing of phantasies against objective reality without success. A reason for these partial failures is that subjects have not been able to build a solid sense of reality and have found many diffi culties for processing reality demands and possibilities. The author puts forward some thoughts on this question, such as the importance of working through the depressive position and the Oedipus complex in the process of building up a solid sense of reality. A sense of reality also favours continuous reality processing. When reality processing becomes as continuous as life itself, the repetition of individual reality tests becomes less frequent and necessary, and more satisfying. The author also presents some recommendations for the psychoanalytic treatment of such patients, stressing the importance and the diffi culties of the introduction of the borderline patient into the triangular situation because primitive defences‐such as disavowal and denial‐are mobilized.     

A behavioural experiment in virtual reality to verify the role of action function in space coding

Neurophysiological data indicate that the reachable peripersonal space and the unreachable extrapersonal space are represented in segregated parietofrontal circuits and that when the unreachable space becomes reachable because of tool use, it is automatically coded by the network selective for peripersonal space. Here we directly tested the role of action's consequences in space coding. Thirty-eight participants bisected lines at either a reachable distance (60 cm) or unreachable distance (120 cm) using either a laser pointer or laser cutter. The laser cutter but not the laser pointer had an action consequence; the line broke into two pieces. The results showed that distance moderated the effect of action. At an unreachable distance, the mean bisection point was closer to the centre when participants used the laser cutter compared to when they used the laser pointer. There were no differences at a reachable distance (60 cm). This result suggests that the space in which the individual may determine a physical consequence is categorized as peripersonal space, independently from its actual distance from the individual's body.     

SLAP: Specification logic of actions with probability

A logic for specifying probabilistic transition systems is presented. Our perspective is that of agents performing actions. A procedure for deciding whether sentences in this logic are valid is provided. One of the main contributions of the paper is the formulation of the decision procedure: a tableau system which appeals to solving systems of linear equations. The tableau rules eliminate propositional connectives, then, for all open branches of the tableau tree, systems of linear equations are generated and checked for feasibility. Proofs of soundness, completeness and termination of the decision procedure are provided.     

Response force in RT tasks: Isolating effects of stimulus probability and response probability

Mattes, UIrich, and Miller (1997) found that as response probability decreases in a simple reaction time (RT) task, participants produce more forceful responses as well as longer RTs, suggesting a direct influence of preparatory processes on the motor system. In this previous study, however, response probability was confounded with stimulus probability, leaving open the possibility that response force was sensitive to stimulus- rather than response-related preparation. The present study was conducted to unravel the effects of stimulus and response probability. Experiment 1 manipulated stimulus probability and revealed that responses to a more probable stimulus are less forceful than responses to a less probable stimulus even when both stimuli require the same response. Experiment 2 demonstrated that this stimulus probability effect does not depend on the overall level of response probability. Experiment 3 showed an analogous effect for response probability when stimulus probability is kept constant. The complete pattern of results suggests that both stimulus probability and response probability affect the forcefulness of a response. It is argued that response probability exerts adirect influence on the motor system, whereas stimulus probability influences the motor system indirectly via premotoric adjustments.