A Narrative Review of Post-1989 Employment Interview Research

This narrative review covers both selection- and recruitment/com-munication-oriented employment interview research published since 1989. Brief comparisons of older reviews' findings to recent findings are presented. Key topics reviewed include validity and reliability evidence, decision making in the interview, applicant characteristics, applicant reactions, and interview communication processes. Key findings of the present review include: interview validity, under certain conditions, may rival that of mental ability tests; more structure in selection interviews is better; previewing applicant information (e.g., resumes) by the interviewer can harm selection interview effectiveness; and certain recruiter behaviors can influence applicants' willingness to work for the firm.     

Selection Interview: A Review of Validity Evidence,Adverse Impact and Applicant Reactions

This article is focused on the evidence related to the criterion and construct validity of interview, its adverse impact on minority groups and the applicant reactions. Based on the content of the questions included in personnel interview, two types of interview made by found: conventional structured interview and behavioural structured interview. With regard to criterion validity, evidence shows that, in general, interviews may be used to predict job performance and, specifically, behavioural structured interviews show the highest validity coefficients. Although construct validity was less well investigated, there is currently a number of studies carried out in order to clarify what constructs are assessed by interviews. It was shown that conventional structured interviews and behavioural structured interviews clearly measure different constructs. With regard to group differences, interviews show only a small adverse impact, but this impact decreases if behavioural structured interviews are used. In connection with applicant reactions, more negative applicant reactions appear with behavioural structured interviews than conventional structured interviews. Practical implications and future lines of research are suggested.     

APPLICANT REACTIONS TO THE INITIAL EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW: EXPLORING THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES

Prior studies of the simultaneous effects of recruiting practices and job attributes on applicant reactions to the initial employment interview offered consistent support for a job attributes effect, but limited support for a recruiting practices effect. The present study, using a preinterview-postinterview design, found that recruiting practices significantly affected all measures of student applicants' reactions to campus interviews. Recruiters had a greater effect on perceptions of the job itself than on perceptions of other job attributes. However, likelihood of job acceptance–the applicant reaction that was conceptually closest to job choice–was still mostly unaffected by recruiting practices. Further research examining the effect of recruiting practices on applicant responses throughout the recruitment process is recommended.     

The Validity of the Employment Interview: A Meta-Analysis

The interview is the most widely used personnel selection method, but has revealed low reliability and validity compared with other selection methods (Mayfield 1964; Ulrich and Trumbo 1965; Schmitt 1976; Arvey 1979). Thirty-one studies on the validity of the interview were meta-analyzed. The result was an average validity coefficient of .27. The estimated true validity of the interview was calculated to be .38. These values indicated that the interview has moderate validity as a personnel selection device. Six characteristics of the interview were also examined in relation to the validity of the interview: structure of the interview; number of interviewers; length of the interview; gender of the applicant pool; blue-collar/white-collar jobs; and use of college students versus job applicants. The six study characteristics accounted for 30.9% of the variance in the validity of the interview. Structure of the interview appeared to be the only characteristic that moderated the validity of the interview. The relationship of this study to other meta-analyses of the employment interview is discussed.     

The Employment Interview Context: Social and Situational Influences on Interviewer Decisions1

The employment interview context is broad and multifaceted, and it includes a number of social, situational, and affective influences which generate from the interviewee, interviewer, nature of the job in question, and interactions among these factors. The employment interview is proposed to be influenced by nonverbal and self-promotion behaviors of the applicant, interviewer training, and the requirements of the job. These variables then influence the intermediate variables of applicant similarity to the interviewer, perceived competence of the applicant, and interviewer affect toward the applicant. The intermediate variables then influence the perceived job suitability of the applicant. The present study tested and found support for modeling the employment interview context and how it affects interviewer decisions. The contributions and limitations of the present study are discussed, in addition to directions for future research.     

Contextualized personality measures in employee selection: Extending frame‐of‐reference research with job applicant samples

This study compared contextualized and non‐contextualized personality measures in operational hiring situations, unlike previous research which has largely relied on student or job incumbent samples. Comparisons were made with regard to (A) the frames‐of‐reference adopted by applicants when responding to the measures, (B) relations with subsequent employment interview scores, (C) applicant reactions, and (D) mean scores for the personality scales. The findings highlight potential concerns with using non‐contextualized personality measures for employee selection, as job applicants will likely adopt various frames‐of‐reference unrelated to the intended focus of measurement (i.e., work). Results also indicated that it may be premature to assume contextualized measures elicit improved applicant reactions despite their apparent job‐relatedness. The discussion concludes with suggested directions for future research.     

Effects of discriminatory interview questions and gender on applicant reactions

Justice and signalling theory were used to explain the effects of discriminatory interview questions on applicant reactions. Participants were randomly assigned to a hypothetical interview condition with four, two or no discriminatory questions. Discriminatory questions had a significant negative effect on participant’s reactions to the interview and interviewer; perceptions of employee treatment; and intentions to pursue employment, accept a job offer, and recommend the organization to others. Participants also responded less favorably to a female interviewer, and female interviewees reported more negative perceptions. In addition, a sequential model was supported in which discriminatory questions had a negative effect on reactions toward the interview and interviewer; reactions were positively related to organizational attractiveness; and organizational attractiveness was positively related to intentions to pursue employment, accept a job offer, and recommend the organization.     

APPLICANT AGE AND SELECTION INTERVIEW DECISIONS: EFFECT OF INFORMATION EXPOSURE ON AGE DISCRIMINATION IN PERSONNEL SELECTION

Two research questions pertaining to the applicant age bias effect were addressed in this study: the effect of age-related information exposure on selection decisions and the issue of between-sample generalizability with reference to the age bias effect. Manager and student selectors made selection decisions after viewing one videotape of a simulated selection interview of either an old or a young job applicant. Before viewing the interview tape, half of each subject group was given an item of age-related information and the other half was given neutral information. The results showed that, under the neutral information condition, managers preferred hiring the young applicant for the low-status job, and students favored the old candidate for the high-status position. Under the age-related information condition, managers shifted to favoring the old candidate for the low-status job, and students preferred the young applicant for both the low- and high-status positions. Age discrimination in selection decisions and the lack of external validity of student results in selection research are then discussed.     

A FIELD STUDY OF APPLICANT REACTIONS TO EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES: DOES THE RECRUITER MAKE A DIFFERENCE?

Previous cross-sectional field and laboratory research has provided mixed results as to whether recruiter characteristics and behaviors influence applicant reactions to employment opportunities. The present research was conducted to examine the effect of recruiter characteristics using a pre-post study design in a naturally occurring setting. In addition, the effects of several potential moderators on recruiter influence were tested. Results indicated that recruiter characteristics had an impact on perceived job attributes, regard for job and company, and likelihood of joining the company. There was little evidence that the effect of recruiter characteristics was moderated by selected applicant, job, or interviewer variables.     

Interviewer's Moods and Reactions to Job Applicants: The Influence of Affective States on Applied Social Judgments1

Male and female subjects interviewed a same-sex applicant for an entry-level management position. In reality, this person was an accomplice who presented a carefully standardized pattern of positive and negative information. Prior to the interview, participants were exposed to treatments designed to place them in a positive, neutral, or negative mood. Results indicated that subjects’ moods influenced their reactions to the applicant. They rated this individual higher on job-related and personal dimensions and made more favorable employment decisions about him or her when in a positive than negative mood. In addition, participants recalled more information presented by the applicant that was consistent with their current mood than information that was inconsistent with these feelings. Implications of these findings for the development of closer conceptual links between (a) basic knowledge about social cognition and (b) practical issues relating to the conduction of fair employment interviews are discussed.     

Effects of eye contact and social status on the perception of a job applicant in an employment interviewing situation

The present study examines the independent and joint effects of variations in eye contact and social status on the way in which job applicants tend to be perceived in employment interviewing situations. The key dependent variable in the analysis is the interviewer's perception of how well the applicant is suited for a job requiring or involving self-confidence. The results, based on a laboratory analogue of an employment interview, show statistically significant main effects for eye contact and social status, as well as a significant two-way interaction effect. Effects of the manipulations on job-specific ratings are also reported, and implications of the research for biases in employment interviewing are discussed.     

Accents in the workplace: their effects during a job interview

As the workplace becomes increasingly global, organizations are more likely to employ persons from other countries whose accents clearly identify them as different from the local workforce. Understanding the impact of accents in the workplace is important because accents can be salient in the same way as ethnicity, age, gender, and skin color and may be a source of employment discrimination. The present study looked at the influence of accents on the evaluation of job applicants during an interview for a human resource manager position. Participants from the US were asked to evaluate an applicant with one of three accents (Midwestern US, French, Colombian) by listening to an audiofile. The results showed that the applicant with the Midwestern US accent was evaluated more positively than the applicant with the French accent; however, the applicant with the Colombian accent did not receive an evaluation that differed significantly from those given to the applicants with either the French or the Midwestern US accent. Analyses of process variables indicated that the bias against the French-accented applicant was mediated by perceived lower similarity. These results are consistent with the similarity-attraction hypothesis, which states that demographic variables will impact judgments to the extent to which they make the decision-maker view the applicant as similar or dissimilar. The ability of accent to trigger bias highlights the importance of considering the full array of characteristics that can lead to discrimination in employment settings. Research on employment discrimination has traditionally focused on visual cues such as gender and ethnicity, but in an interview situation, the way the applicant speaks is also important.     

Thou Shalt not Lie! Exploring and testing countermeasures against faking intentions and faking in selection interviews

Many applicants use faking in interviews to present themselves more favorably than they really are. There is widespread concern that this may affect interview validity. As previous research on countermeasures is sparse, we conducted an exploratory study to identify the most promising countermeasures. For technology-mediated interviews, these were warnings referring to a criterion-based content analysis and lie detection algorithms focusing on nonverbal or paraverbal cues. For face-to-face interviews, these were objective questions and a personable interviewer. We then investigated the effects of these countermeasures on faking intentions in two experimental vignette studies and on faking in another simulated interview study. However, none of the countermeasures could reduce faking intentions or faking. Additionally, in the vignette studies, warnings impaired applicant reactions.     

EFFECT OF SITUATIONAL INTERVIEWS, CONVENTIONAL STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS, AND TRAINING ON INTERVIEW RATING AGREEMENT: AN EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS

The present study examines the degree to which agreement in interviewer ratings may be influenced by training, use of structured conventional interviews, or situational interviews. Results of an experimental study conducted among 42 managers who were experienced as interviewers revealed no training effect on rating agreement, but the impact of the situational format on consistency in assessments of applicant suitability was significant. Implications of these findings for usefulness of situational employment interviews and future research investigating the reliability of situational interview formats are discussed.     

A FIELD STUDY OF JOB APPLICANT INTERVIEW PERCEPTIONS, ALTERNATIVE OPPORTUNITIES, AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS

A field study was conducted to examine several factors related to young job applicants, their reactions to job interviews, and their intentions to accept a job if offered. Immediately following their interviews, 422 applicants voluntarily responded to questionnaires concerning the interview, parents' and friends' pressure for them to take the job, alternative job opportunities, and behavioral intentions to accept the job. Applicants who responded more favorably to their interviewers felt somewhat more positive about taking a job in the recruiting organization. Perceived alternative job opportunities moderated the relationship between reactions to the job and acceptance intentions. Multivariate effects were found for applicant sex, applicant race, and interviewer sex on reactions to the interviewer and the interview. Further research on the role of parental and peer pressure on job acceptance among young workers is suggested, as is the moderating role of alternative opportunities. The implications of race and sex differences in interview reactions are also discussed.     

The Influence of Perceived Interviewer and Job and Organizational Characteristics on Applicant Attraction and Job Choice Intentions: The role of applicant anxiety

This study examined whether interviewer characteristics have (a) a direct influence on applicant attraction and job choice intentions, (b) an indirect influence via job and organizational characteristics, and (c) direct influence on applicant anxiety. A sample of graduate applicants (N=450) was surveyed before a selection interview (Time 1) and after the employment interview (Time 2). Structural equation modeling was used to examine the hypothesized model. The results showed that interviewer characteristics (warmth, unfriendliness, job knowledge, general competence and humor) had both a direct and indirect effect on applicant attraction and job choice intentions. In addition, interviewer characteristics had a significant positive impact on applicant anxiety. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.     

Often biased but rarely in doubt: How initial reactions to stigmatized applicants affect interviewer confidence

Building on a metacognitive framework of heuristic judgments, we investigate the effect of applicant stigma on interviewers’ overconfidence in their (biased) judgments. There were 193 experienced interviewers conducting a face-to-face interview with an applicant who was facially stigmatized or not, and who was visible (traditional interview) or not (partially blind interview), to the interviewer during the rapport-building stage. In traditional interviews, interview judgments of stigmatized applicants were negatively biased, and interviewers reported overconfidence in these judgments. This effect was partially mediated by the interviewer’s professional performance during rapport building. Interview procedure moderated both the direct and indirect effect (through professional performance) of applicant stigma on interviewer confidence. Results show that interviewer (over)confidence in biased judgments is driven by the initial effects of, and reactions to, the stigmatized applicant.     

Effects of Applicant Pregnancy on Hiring Decisions and Interview Ratings

The effects of pregnancy on hiring decisions during employment interviews are examined in a United States sample of 210 undergraduate business school students at a Midwestern university. A pregnant applicant was compared to a non-pregnant applicant with identical credentials and interview performance to explore any differences in interviewer ratings of qualifications and hiring by having participants view videotaped interviews. Results show that in spite of being viewed as equally qualified and well-suited for the job, the pregnant applicant received significantly lower hiring recommendation ratings. The pregnant applicant was also rated as more likely to need time off, miss work and quit compared to the non-pregnant applicant, indicating a concern about absenteeism regarding the pregnant applicant.     

Emotional Intelligence in Personnel Selection: Applicant reactions,criterion, and incremental validity

In two studies, based on four samples and more than 600 participants, the authors examined applicant reactions, criterion and incremental validity, and differential prediction of emotional intelligence (EI) in personnel selection using the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test. The first study examined applicant reactions in terms of face validity and fairness evaluation of the EI test. The second study examined across three samples (salespeople, front‐desk public employees, and hospital chief executive officers) the criterion validity, incremental validity, and differential prediction of EI. Results suggest that the EI test is perceived as a fair selection tool, and is predictive of performance. The EI test has incremental validity over cognitive abilities and personality (big five) when predicting subjective and objective performance criteria. Based on these results, the authors encourage further research on the use of EI in selection settings.