The influence of parents and family context on children's involvement in household tasks

To determine the relative impact of a number of family variables on children's performance of gender-typed household tasks, this study took account of the gender of the child, the gender of a sibling within the same age range (8–14 years), whether a first or second child and three parental variables: the degree of encouragement given to perform masculineand femininetasks, parental involvement in the same tasks, and parents' general egalitarianism. The sample consisted of 191 white, mainly Anglo Australian two-parent families, with the two oldest children in a boy—boy, girl—girl, boy—girl, or girl—boy sequence. To check on the robustness of effects, measures were taken on two occasions, on average 16 months apart. Among the family context variables, the gender of the child was the strongest contributing variable, with girls doing more feminine tasks than boys and boys doing more masculine tasks than girls. There was limited support for the proposition that first children do more housework than second children of the same gender, while the results for gender of sibling were small and inconsistent. Among the parental variables, encouragement had strong positive effects for feminine tasks (i.e., more encouragement by parents corresponded to more involvement by children). In contrast, parental involvement in the same tasks (modeling) and parental egalitarianism predicted only the performance of masculine tasks, and the direction of the effects was mostly negative (e.g., the more a father was involved in masculine tasks, the less a child did of those tasks). The results point to involvement in gender-typed activities being influenced by multiple factors, with parental encouragement and gender of child being most prominent among these. They also point to the value of sampling on more than one occasion and of considering separately the performance of feminine and masculine tasks. This research was financially supported by the Australian Research Council. We are happy to acknowledge that support, together with the essential assistance of the Department of Education and the many parents and children who participated in the study.     

Same-sex and cross-sex siblings: Activity choices,roles, behavior,and gender stereotypes

Forty same-sex and cross-sex school-aged sibling pairs were observed in their homes during self-selected activities. The sex role learning index (SERLI) and a sex-typing room analysis were administered for the younger siblings, and maternal questionnaire information was obtained. Sibling gender constellation was associated with reliable differences in activity choices during the unstructured observations. Male dyads interacted less than other sibling groups, while older sisters in female dyads engaged in the most teaching. Older female siblings, regardless of the gender of the younger sibling, assumed the manager role frequently. Dyads containing an older girl also exhibited the greatest role asymmetrics. Affective differences related to gender constellation were also noted. Younger girls with older brothers and younger boys with older sisters evidenced the least gender stereotyping.     

Longitudinal Associations among Parental Acceptance,Familism Values,and Sibling Intimacy in Mexican‐Origin Families

Prospective associations among parent – adolescent acceptance and familism values in early and middle adolescence and sibling intimacy in late adolescence and young adulthood were assessed in 246 Mexican‐origin families. Older sibling gender and sibling gender constellation were investigated as moderators of these associations. Sibling intimacy was stable over time and younger siblings with older sisters reported higher levels of sibling intimacy than those with older brothers. As predicted, stronger familism values were associated with greater sibling intimacy, but this link was evident only for older sisters and for girl‐girl dyads. The links from mother‐ and father‐acceptance to sibling intimacy also depended on the gender constellation of the sibling dyad: Higher levels of maternal warmth were associated with greater sibling intimacy for older sisters and girl‐girl sibling pairs but higher levels of paternal warmth were linked to greater sibling intimacy only for older siblings in mixed‐gender sibling dyads. Findings are consistent with prior research on the role of gender in family relationships but extend this work to encompass the effects of both parents' and siblings' gender, as well as the role of sociocultural values in parents' socialization influences.     

Israeli kindergarten children's gender constancy for others' counter‐stereotypic toy play and appearance: the role of sibling gender and relative age

To test divergent theoretical predictions as to the impact of having a younger or older, same‐sex sibling or opposite‐sex sibling on other gender constancy, Israeli kindergarten children in two‐child families responded to a gender constancy task in which a male and female picture target engaged in counter‐stereotypic toy play and adopted counter‐stereotypic appearance. Children were also asked whether the target child could change sex at will and to explain the difference between boys and girls. Relative age of sibling, both independently and in interaction with participant sex, was associated with greater gender constancy in the face of counter‐stereotypic toy play. Relative age of sibling and sibling sex was independently associated with greater gender constancy in the face of counter‐stereotypic appearance. In both cases, children with a younger sibling evidenced greater gender constancy. Boys, especially ones with a male sibling, referred most explicitly to target's birth sex in accounting for his or her being unable to change sex at will. Genital and anatomical differences between boys and girls were cited more often by children who referred explicitly to target's birth sex and had a younger sibling. The results were discussed in the context of theories of gender development and the socialization of gender within the family. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Boys' and girls' perceptions of parental discipline in transgression situations

Children's perceptions of parental discipline methods and their perceptions of child gender differences in their parents' choices of discipline methods were assessed. One hundred and seventy 8‐year‐old children (78 boys, 92 girls) in two‐parent families were asked about disciplinary behaviour in five transgression situations. The results pointed to gender differences when the children were talking about themselves. Boys believed that they would receive more physical punishment, milder requests and less induction than girls. Children also indicated that their parents would choose a different response if they (themselves) were of the other sex. Both boys and girls reported that their parents would treat boys more severely than they would girls. The results showed that the responses of those children with a sibling of the other sex did not reveal any gender‐differentiated experience of their parents' discipline strategies. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Development of Aggression in 18 to 48 Month Old Children of Alcoholic Parents

This study examined the development of aggressive and oppositional behavior among alcoholic and nonalcoholic families using latent growth modeling. The sample consisted of 226 families assessed at 18, 24, 36, and 48 months of child age. Results indicated that children in families with nonalcoholic parents had the lowest levels of aggressive behavior at all time points compared to children with one or more alcoholic parents. Children in families with two alcoholic parents did not exhibit normative decreases in aggressive behavior from 3 to 4 years of age compared to nonalcoholic families. However, this association was no longer significant once a cumulative family risk score was added to the model. Children in families with high cumulative risk scores, reflective of high parental depression, antisocial behavior, negative affect during play, difficult child temperament, marital conflict, fathers’ education, and hours spent in child care, had higher levels of aggression at 18 months than children in low risk families. These associations were moderated by child gender. Boys had higher levels of aggressive behavior at all ages than girls, regardless of group status. Cumulative risk was predictive of higher levels of initial aggressive behavior in both girls and boys. However, boys with two alcoholic parents had significantly less of a decline in aggression from 36 to 48 months compared to boys in the nonalcoholic group.     

Risk in a parent's eyes: Effects of gender and parenting experience

The present study is an attempt to investigate how sex of parent, parenting experience, and child's gender influence parents' reactions to risky and annoying behaviors of children. The subjects were 15 sets of expectant parents and 16 sets of parents from each of three other family configurations (one boy, one girl, or both a boy and a girl). The subjects viewed a 23-minute videotape composed of 22 videoclips. Each videoclip depicted a common activity for a 12- to-36-month-old child that could elicit parental intervention because of risk or annoyance or both. Fifteen scenes were acted by children who had been previously rated as gender ambiguous in appearance. The audio portion of the tape identified each genderambiguous child as a boy to some subjects and as a girl to others. The subjects were instructed to press buttons to indicate when they would respond and the types of response (physical or verbal) they would make. Analyses showed strong effects of parenting experience for latency and number of interventions. Generally, parents of one boy intervened most quickly, followed by parents of two children, parents of one girl, and expectant parents. The gender label manipulation showed effects only on the high risk tapes. Mothers responded more than fathers in situations that were annoying but not risky. Mothers and fathers agreed when children were engaged in risky behaviors. The use of videoclips to study parent socialization is a useful supplement to observations and self-report questionnaires.Preparation of the gender labeling tasks was supported in part by BRSG Grant 50 7RR07080 awarded by the Biomedical Research Support Program, Division of Research Resources, National Institutes of Health. Part of the article is based on the doctoral dissertation of the first author, presented to the Department of Psychology, University of Oregon. Data analyses and preparation of the article were completed while the third author was on a postdoctoral fellowship (Grant 1 T32 MH 16955-01) through the Oregon Social Learning Center.     

Adolescent Gender and Age Differences in Responsiveness to Functional Family Therapy

The current study contributes to a sparse literature on moderators of Functional Family Therapy (FFT) by examining whether responsiveness to FFT, measured by a broad range of outcomes, varies by adolescent gender, age, and their interaction. This study was informed by 687 families (n, adolescents = 581; n, caregivers = 933) and utilized a pre–post comparison design. Fixed-effects regressions with gender, age, and their interaction included as explanatory variables were conducted to calculate the average change in youth mental health, callous–unemotional traits, academic outcomes, substance use, and family functioning. Moderation analyses revealed that according to parent report, girls had significantly greater improvements in peer problems and family functioning, and boys benefited more in increased liking of school. There were differential effects by age, such that older youth had less beneficial mental health outcomes and a smaller decrease in frequency of hash use. The gender by age interaction was significant for adolescents’ report of mental health and family functioning outcomes, which suggests that girls benefit from FFT less than boys during early adolescence, but benefit more than boys in late adolescence. This finding adds to literature which has evidenced that family functioning is particularly important for girls by suggesting that FFT is important for improving older girls’ mental health and family functioning in particular. The study’s results expand the examination of outcomes of FFT to include academic outcomes, and provide insight into key factors that should be considered in addressing adolescent behavioral problems and family functioning.     

Children's choices of and value judgments about sex-typed toys and occupations

Boys (N = 97) and girls (N = 96) from kindergarten through sixth grade were asked to select toys and occupations under one of the following three instructional sets: (1) choose for a girl, (2) choose for a boy, (3) choose the best one. Results indicated that children made selections for boys and girls which were in accordance with culturally accepted stereotypes. However, children's selections of the best toys and occupations were more sex-typed in the masculine direction for boys than in the feminine direction for girls. In addition, as children grew older, their choices of occupations, but not of toys, became more sex-typed. These results were discussed in terms of implications for self and career development.     

Children's perceptions of gender discrimination

Children (N = 76; ages 5-10 years) participated in a study designed to examine perceptions of gender discrimination. Children were read scenarios in which a teacher determined outcomes for 2 students (1 boy and 1 girl). Contextual information (i.e., teacher's past behavior), the gender of the target of discrimination (i.e., student), and the gender of the perpetrator (i.e., teacher) were manipulated. Results indicated that older children were more likely than younger children to make attributions to discrimination when contextual information suggested that it was likely. Girls (but not boys) were more likely to view girls than boys as victims of discrimination, and children with egalitarian gender attitudes were more likely to perceive discrimination than were their peers.     

Numbers for Boys and Words for Girls? Academic Gender Stereotypes among Chinese Parents

Academic gender stereotypes contribute to observed gender differences in educational enrollment and attainment. Investigating parents’ stereotypes among 907 families in China, this study used exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses to uncover four latent factors: boys-Math, boys-Sciences, girls-Chinese, and girls-Liberal Arts stereotypes. The former two depicted boys as more gifted, enthusiastic, and higher-achieving learners in Math and Sciences, and the latter two favored girls in Chinese and Liberal Arts. This four-factor structure was invariant across parents with sons and daughters after accounting for the nonindependence of parents within families. The boys-Math and boys-Sciences stereotypes were found to be stronger than the other two stereotypes. Further analyses revealed nuances concerning the boys-Math stereotype: it was more pronounced among mothers than fathers in families with daughters, fathers with sons than daughters, and girls’ mothers without college degrees than those with degrees. Within the same family, mothers more commonly held stereotype-consistent perceptions concerning Math and Chinese than fathers, but there was a general agreement over gendered perceptions of all four achievement domains regardless of child gender. The findings highlight the need for family-based awareness-raising programs targeting parents’ gender stereotypes to create gender-fair and gender-inclusive learning environments.

     

Mothers of transgender youth experience stigma-by-association

The current research investigated whether mothers of transgender youth experience stigma-by-association. Mturk participants (N = 489) were randomly assigned to read a vignette about a family in which the social identity (transgender, gay/lesbian, cisgender/heterosexual control) and gender (girl, boy) of a child was manipulated, while all other information was held constant. Results revealed stigma targeting mothers as a function of children's social identity (but not gender), such that mothers of transgender girls and boys were viewed substantially more negatively than identical mothers of cisgender/heterosexual youth. Moreover, this stigma was particularly robust among politically conservative participants. In contrast, mothers of gay/lesbian youth did not encounter systematic stigma, though they were sometimes perceived more negatively than mothers of cisgender/heterosexual youth. Results provide novel experimental evidence of stigma-by-association targeting mothers of transgender youth and raise serious concerns about the treatment of parents who seek to affirm their transgender children.     

Development of gender labeling: Effect of age of pictured children

Toddlers (27 girls and 25 boys) between 20 and 42 months of age were given three gender discrimination tasks, each consisting of 12 pairs of photographs of girls and boys at one of three age levels: 3, 8, or 13 years. The subject's task was to point to the designated target (girl or boy) on each trial. Subjects' gender discrimination improved with age, with a fairly sharp transition from chance to accurate responding occurring at approximately 29 months. The age of pictured children did not affect performance.     

Masculine or feminine gender identity in boys: Developmental differences between two diverse family groups

Early developmental experiences of 66 boys, ages 4–11, who preferred the clothes, toys, and companionship of girls, preferentially role-played as females, and stated their wish to be girls, were compared with those of 56 conventionally masculine boys, selected on the basis of matched demographic features of their families. The “feminine” boys were more often described as having been “beautiful” infants, and were hospitalized more often during their early years. Mothers reported less physical contact with the “feminine” sons in the first years and less time spent with these sons. Fathers also reported spending less time with “feminine” sons during the first years. There was no difference between groups of parents regarding their wish for a girl or a boy during the pregnancy with this son. There were no major distinctions between the two groups of parents on marital role division or marital satisfaction.     

亲子三角关系的性别差异

亲子三角关系指父母发生冲突时,子女主动或被动卷入其中而形成的不平衡的“父亲—子女—母亲”三角关系,通常包括代罪羔羊、亲职化和跨代联盟三大类型,与儿童青少年的内外化行为问题等密切关联。在有关亲子三角关系的发生特点及其影响是否具有性别一致性的问题上,既有研究结论尚存在分歧。这可能与人口学变量的差异和性别角色观念的变迁等因素有关。国内大陆在该领域的研究近乎为零。未来需通过开展本土研究,细化人口学变量和综合运用多种测量方法与指标,采用追踪设计等厘清该问题。     

Vietnamese Adolescents in Australia: Relationships between Perceptions of Self and Parental Values,Intergenerational Conflict,and Gender Dissatisfaction

The present study examined traditional family and independence values among young Vietnamese respondents (N = 204), their perceptions of parents' values, and the impact of differential parent-adolescent acculturation on intergenerational conflict and gender satisfaction. The study confirmed that adolescents perceived that they had less traditional values than their parents. Traditional family values diminished with time spent in Australia while the value accorded to independence increased. This pattern was stronger for girls than for boys. Girls valued Vietnamese traditions less than did their male peers, regarded their parents as being less accepting of independence, and were more dissatisfied with their gender role than boys. For girls but not for boys, discrepancy between adolescent and parental values was associated with more conflict and greater gender dissatisfaction. This study suggests that girls have more difficulty than boys in dealing simultaneously with the expectations of two cultures.     

Gender and weight concerns in early and middle adolescence: links with well-being and family characteristics

Studied sex and developmental differences in weight concerns in early and middle adolescence and links between concerns and adolescent well-being and family experiences. Participants were mothers, fathers, and older and younger siblings (Ms = 15 and 12.5 years, respectively) from 197, Caucasian, working-middle class, 2-parent families. Parents rated their gender role attitudes and adolescents rated their weight concerns, well-being, gender role orientations, and physical development. Girls reported more concerns than boys; body mass index (BMI) correlated with weight concerns for all youth. Controlling for BMI and pubertal status, weight concerns were linked to older girls' well-being; with physical characteristics controlled, mothers' gender attitudes explained older girls' weight concerns, and siblings' weight concerns explained those of older and younger girls and boys.     

Effects of Labelled Gender on Vocal Communication of Young Women with 4-month-old Infants

Most of the previous studies analyzing the effect of gender label on adults' interactive behaviours with infants concluded that gender stereotypes affect adults' behaviours more than the actual behaviours or characteristics of the infants. These stereotypes and their ensuing behaviours would contribute to the differential socialization experiences of infants according to their gender. The objective of the present study was to investigate further the effect of gender label on adults' vocal communication with infants. Therefore, the prosodic and content features of the language addressed by young women to infants presented as girls and as boys were examined. Sixteen women were observed during two 5-minute sessions of face-to-face interaction with 3-to-4-month-old infants, one introduced as a girl, the other as a boy, in a counterbalanced order. Six girls and four boys served as stimuli. The number of utterances addressed to the infants, their duration and fundamental frequency, as well as the prosodic contour and the content of each vocalization were measured. Results indicated only one significant gender label effect: Women referred more frequently to infant's global motor activity when the infant was presented as a boy. This observation is congruent with other data. However, our results do not demonstrate a consistent pattern of gender label effect when women are talking to unfamiliar infants in such a context.     

Progression on Nickelodeon? Gender-Role Stereotypes in Toy Commercials

A content analysis was conducted to examine gender-role stereotypes in toy commercials airing during the after-school hours in October, 2004, on the U.S. Nickelodeon network. The sample included 455 toy commercials, which were analyzed for the type of toy, number of identifiable boys and girls, gender portrayal, gender orientation, age of children, type of interaction, setting, and color of setting. The majority of girl and boy characters were featured in gender-specific toy commercials, and there were more identifiable girls than boys. Almost one-half of the characters were children (6-to-10-years old) who predominantly played indoors, in mixed colored settings, and engaged in cooperative play. Boys were more likely than girls to be shown outdoors and playing competitively.     

Effects of household sex composition on the salience of one's gender in the spontaneous self-concept

It was hypothesized that being a boy or a girl becomes more salient in a child's self-concept to the extent the other sex numerically predominates in the child's household. This prediction was based upon an information-processing, distinctiveness postulate that a person contemplating a complex stimulus (such as the self) selectively notices and encodes its more distinctive, information-rich aspects. The spontaneous self-concept elicited by nondirective “Tell us about yourself” interviews of 560 school children were scored for spontaneous mention of one's gender. As predicted, boys spontaneously mentioned their maleness more often when they came from households where females were in the majority; girls mentioned their femaleness more often when from households with male majorities; boys mentioned their maleness more often when from father-absent than from father-present homes. Incidental findings are that gender is more salient in the negation self-concept (“Tell us what you are not”) than in the affirmation self-concept (“Tell us about yourself”) especially for girls and that gender becomes increasingly salient as the child grows older.