Direct and relational bullying among primary school children and academic achievement

The association between bullying behaviour and academic achievement was investigated in 1016 children from primary schools (6-7-year-olds/year 2: 480; 8-9-year-olds/year 4: 536). Children were individually interviewed about their bullying experiences using a standard interview. Key Stage I National Curriculum results (assessed at the end of year 2) were collected from class teachers, and parents completed a behaviour and health questionnaire. Results revealed no relationship between direct bullying behaviour and decrements in academic achievement. Conversely, higher academic achievement at year 2 predicted bullying others relationally (e.g. social exclusion at year 4). Relational victimisation, Special Educational Needs (SEN), being a pupil from a rural school or small classes and low socioeconomic status (SES) predicted low academic achievement for year 2 children. Findings discount the theory that underachievement and frustration at school leads to direct, physical bullying behaviour.     

Modeling relationships between physical fitness,executive functioning,and academic achievement in primary school children

ObjectivesThe relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement in children has received much attention, however, whether executive functioning plays a mediating role in this relationship is unclear. The aim of this study therefore was to investigate the relationships between physical fitness, executive functioning, and academic achievement, more specifically to test whether the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement is direct or indirect, via executive functioning.DesignCross-sectional.MethodThis study examined 263 children (145 boys, 118 girls), aged 7–12 years, who performed tests on physical fitness, executive functioning, and academic achievement.ResultsIn a structural equation model linking physical fitness to executive functioning and academic achievement there was a significant relationship between physical fitness and executive functioning (r = .43, R² = .19) and academic achievement (r = .33, R² = .11). Adding a relationship from executive functioning to academic achievement resulted in a non-significant direct link between physical fitness and academic achievement (r = −.08, R² = .006). However, a significant indirect relation through executive functioning persisted. The indirect relation between fitness and academic achievement (r = .41), was stronger than both the direct and total relation (r = .33).ConclusionExecutive functioning thus served as a mediator in the relation between physical fitness and academic achievement. This highlights the importance of including executive functioning when studying the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement in children.     

The mediating role of cognitive ability on the relationship between motor proficiency and early academic achievement in children

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between motor proficiency and academic achievement in 7 years-old children. A mediating model in which the relation between motor proficiency and academic achievement is mediated by cognitive ability was tested. Participants included 152 children from the longitudinal study Jeunes enfants et leurs milieux de vie (Young Children and their Environments). Motor proficiency was evaluated with the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOT2), cognitive ability with the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) and academic achievement with the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test II (WIAT II). Results showed that motor proficiency, cognitive ability and academic achievement were positively correlated with each other. A structural equation modeling analysis revealed that motor proficiency had a positive effect on academic achievement through an indirect path via cognitive ability. These results highlight the fundamental importance of motor skills in children's academic achievement in early school years.     

Physical fitness,cognitive functioning and academic achievement in healthy adolescents

PurposeExamine the association between health-related physical fitness (cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular fitness) and skill-related physical fitness (speed-agility) and both cognitive functions and academic achievement in adolescents (12–15 years).MethodsData of 423 Dutch adolescents were analyzed (46.8% boys, age = 13.45 ± 0.43 years). Physical fitness was assessed using five subtests of the Eurofit test battery measuring cardiorespiratory fitness (20 m Shuttle Run Test), muscular fitness (Broad Jump and Sit-Ups) and speed-agility (10 × 5 m Shuttle Run Test and Plate Tapping Test). Cognitive functions were assessed by the Digit Span Task, the Grid Task and an adapted version of the Attention Network Test. Finally, academic achievement was assessed by two standardized tests assessing mathematic skills and language skills. Multilevel regression analyses were performed in MlWin to examine the relations of interest adjusting for sex and age.ResultsMultilevel regression analysis showed that speed-agility was significantly related to visuospatial working memory (β = 0.159; p = 0.014), information processing and control (β = 0.238; p < 0.001) and interference control (β = 0.156; p = 0.039), but not to the other cognitive or academic achievement outcomes. Cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular fitness were not related to any of the cognitive or academic achievement outcomes.ConclusionThe results suggest that skill-related physical fitness is related to cognitive functions and health-related physical fitness is not. Therefore it can be argued that improved levels of skill-related physical fitness may lead to improved cognitive functioning.     

The role of the executive functions in school achievement at the end of Grade 1

The aim of this study was to determine the role of executive functions (EFs) in early school achievement when a variety of potential confounding factors were controlled. Measures of EF (inhibition, flexibility, and working memory) and school readiness were administered to a sample of 85 kindergartners (39 boys and 46 girls, 5-6 years old). School achievement was then assessed at the end of Grade 1. Results show math and reading/writing skills at the end of Grade 1 to be associated with kindergarten EFs. Only working memory contributed uniquely to the variance in school achievement after all covariates (preacademic abilities, affective variables, and family variables) were controlled and, even then, only with respect to math skills. On the other hand, working memory and inhibition had an indirect effect on reading/writing skills via anger-aggression. EF implication in school achievement is discussed in terms of task demands and child age.     

Examining the relation between ratings of executive functioning and academic achievement: Findings from a cross-cultural study

The present study investigated the relation between academic performance and ratings of executive functioning in children aged 6–11 from four countries: Sweden, Spain, Iran, and China. Ratings of executive functioning were made by both parents and teachers using the Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI). The results showed that the Chinese sample was generally rated as having more executive deficits compared to the other samples. The finding that executive functioning deficits are exacerbated in China is most likely the result of cultural biases. Boys were generally rated as having poorer executive functioning compared to girls, except in Iran where parents, but not teachers, rated girls as having poorer executive functioning compared to boys. However, this opposite pattern of results found for Iran is not likely to reflect true gender differences in executive functioning. Despite some differences in the levels of executive functioning across countries, both the inhibition and working memory subscales of the CHEXI were related to academic achievement in all four countries, except for CHEXI parent ratings in China. Altogether, the results indicate that the CHEXI may be used as a screening measure for early academic difficulties, although cultural biases clearly have to be taken into consideration.     

The relationship between physical fitness and inhibitory ability in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An event-related potential study

ObjectivesThe purpose of the current study was to examine the relationship between physical fitness and interference control by comparing higher and lower fitness children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) using event-related potentials (ERPs) and behavioral indices.DesignCross-sectional design was employed.MethodEighty children, previously diagnosed with ADHD, were evaluated on their inhibitory ability as measured during their participation in the flanker task, and this ability was examined in relationship to measures of their physical fitness. Only children in the top 40% or in the bottom 40% of the distribution for each fitness components were included in the statistical analysis.ResultsThe results showed that children with higher levels of muscular endurance, muscular power, and aerobic capacity had shorter reaction times (RT) and larger P3 amplitudes compared to less fit children. In addition, children with lower body composition had shorter reaction times and shorter P3 latencies compared to those with higher body composition.ConclusionsBetter physical fitness, especially muscular endurance, muscular power, aerobic capacity, and body composition, were associated with enhanced interference control in children with ADHD. Our findings suggest the need for a closer examination of the possible impact of different aspects of fitness on the general relationship between physical fitness and cognition.     

A longitudinal analysis of reciprocal relationships between actual and perceived motor competencies and physical self-concept in primary-school age children

Physical self-concept (PSC) and motor competencies are important factors in view of the development of a physically active lifestyle. There are research gaps regarding longitudinal studies of these relationships. This article presents findings of a longitudinal study (n = 200; 58% girls, M = 8.84 ± 0.63 years) at three primary schools. The aim of this study was to analyze the relationship between actual motor competencies (AMC) and perceived motor competencies (PMC) and PSC. Therefore, manifest path models in cross-lagged design were performed. Results show that correlations between PMC and AMC increased over time and were stronger in object control than in locomotor. Effects of AMC on PSC were more strongly mediated by PMC in object control than in locomotor. To promote physical activity, developing strategies should be aimed at the acquisition of AMC, particularly in object control, and PMC, especially in locomotor, during childhood.     

Towards a better understanding of the association between motor skills and executive functions in 5- to 6-year-olds: The impact of motor task difficulty

Different lines of evidence suggest an association between motor skills and executive functions (EFs) in kindergarten children. Comparatively little is known about the specific nature of this relationship. In the present study, using a within-subjects design, a sample of 124 five- to six-year-old children completed 12 fine and gross motor tasks of varying nominal difficulty and three EFs tasks. We assumed that difficult motor tasks are less automated than easy motor tasks. Therefore, EFs should be involved more strongly in difficult compared to easy motor tasks. Firstly, results replicated the association between motor skills and EFs. Secondly, results provided a new and differentiated perspective on the evidence of this link. Performance on both easy and difficult fine motor tasks was significantly related to EFs. However, only performance on the difficult, but not on the easy gross motor tasks was significantly correlated with EFs. The findings demonstrate that the challenges and demands inherent in any motor task influence the magnitude of the motor–EFs link. That is, difficult (i.e., less automated) motor tasks require EFs more substantially than easy (i.e., more automated) motor tasks. Results will be discussed with regard to further candidate processes underlying the motor–EFs link.     

Association of catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) polymorphism and academic achievement in a Chinese cohort

Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) is a methylation enzyme that catalyzes the degradation pathway and inactivation of dopamine. It is accepted widely as being involved in the modulation of dopaminergic physiology and prefrontal cortex (PFC) function. The COMT Val158Met polymorphism is associated with variation in COMT activity. COMT 158Met allele may be advantageous for PFC-related cognitive abilities; however, it is also associated with increased anxiety, depression, and emotional vulnerability in response to stress or educational adversity. We hypothesized that the COMT polymorphism might be associated with academic performance. In this study, 779 Taiwanese tenth-grade volunteers were recruited. Scores from the Basic Competency Test (BCT), an annual national competitive entrance examination, were used to evaluate academic performance. The results indicated that students bearing homozygous for the Met allele tended to perform more poorly in all BCT subtests as compared to the other groups. In particular, the former performed significantly more poorly in the science and social science subtests. These findings provide evidence that affective factors might overwhelm cognitive abilities in high-stake tests like the BCT.     

Extending hierarchical achievement motivation models: The role of motivational needs for achievement goals and academic performance

In the current study, we investigated the role of three basic motivational needs (need for power, affiliation, achievement) as antecedents of goals within the 2 × 2 achievement goal framework, and examined their combined predictive validity with regard to academic performance in a sample of 120 university students. Structural equation modeling analysis largely supported our postulated model, linking motivational needs indirectly to course grades through goals. Achievement goals were formed by a combination of different motives: need for achievement was a positive predictor of all four achievement goals, and need for affiliation was negatively related to performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals. Additionally, need for power was a positive predictor of performance-avoidance goals. Performance-approach goals had a direct (positive) effect on performance outcomes. In sum, our results integrate basic motivational needs with the achievement goals literature and extend therefore hierarchical achievement motivation models, by showing how basic human motives of achievement, affiliation, and power are related to goal striving motivation and performance outcomes in an academic setting.     

Executive functions and social skills in survivors of pediatric brain tumor

Medical advances have resulted in increased survival rates for children with brain tumors. Consequently, issues related to survivorship have become more critical. The use of multimodal treatment, in particular cranial radiation therapy, has been associated with subsequent cognitive decline. Specifically, deficits in executive functions have been reported in survivors of various types of pediatric brain tumor. Survivors are left with difficulties, particularly in self-monitoring, initiation, inhibition, and planning, to name a few. Another domain in which survivors of pediatric brain tumor have been reported to show difficulty is that of social skills. Parents, teachers, and survivors themselves have reported decreased social functioning following treatment. Deficits in executive functions and social skills are likely interrelated in this population, as executive skills are needed to navigate various aspects of social interaction; however, this has yet to be studied empirically. Twenty-four survivors of pediatric brain tumor were assessed using a computerized task of executive functions, as well as paper-and-pencil measures of social skills and real-world executive skills. Social functioning was related to a specific aspect of executive functions, that is, the survivors' variability in response time, such that inconsistent responding was associated with better parent-reported and survivor-reported social skills, independent of intellectual abilities. Additionally, parent-reported real-world global executive abilities predicted parent-reported social skills. The implications of these findings for social skills interventions and future research are discussed.     

The mediating role of self-efficacy between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction of primary school teachers

IntroductionIn this study, it was analyzed whether self-efficacy has a mediating role between the emotional intelligence and job satisfaction of primary school teachers.ObjectiveIt is to test the relationships between primary school teachers job satisfaction, self-efficacy and emotional intelligence levels.MethodA path analysis was performed on a sample of 252 primary school teachers.ResultsIt was found that self-efficacy mediated the relationship between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction.ConclusionBased on the findings of the study, the relationships between emotional intelligence, job satisfaction and self-efficacy were discussed in the literature and various suggestions were made to concerned future researchers and practitioners.     

The role of executive functions in bilingual children with reading difficulties

To explore the joint effect of reading difficulties (RD) and bilingualism on executive functions, 190 children of four groups of 9–12 year‐olds (41 bilinguals with RD, 45 monolinguals with RD, 45 bilinguals without RD, and 59 monolinguals without RD) were examined on the Concentration game, Tower of Hanoi, and Stroop as measures of executive functioning tapping into inhibitory/attentional control, working memory and planning ability. The most prominent finding was that in terms of RD, the speed of performances decreased dramatically. This general decrease was more pronounced for bilingual children with RD than for their monolingual counterparts. In conclusion, the findings suggest that while bilinguals gain more from executive functions in normal reading, they lose in terms of RD. Such an outcome confirms that executive functions are essential components of both reading and bilingualism, which depending on whether reading conditions are normal or difficult will produce cognitive advantages or disadvantages. Further, it is argued that dissimilarity between the Farsi and Swedish languages may complicate handling of such a situation.     

The role of motivation in the conceptual model of motor development in childhood

The aim of this study was twofold: first, to investigate whether perceived motor competence (PMC) mediates the relation between actual motor competence (AMC) and physical activity (PA) according to the conceptual model of motor development, and second to examine the role of different motivational regulations (i.e., intrinsic, identified, introjected, and external regulation) in the relationship between PMC and PA. A sample of 504 Spanish students (46.2% girls, 8–12 years old) voluntarily participated in this study. In relation to the first aim, structural equation modeling revealed that PMC indeed mediates the association between AMC and PA. In relation to the second aim, positive associations between AMC and PMC (β = 0.32, p < .001), which in turn was positively related to intrinsic and identified regulations (β = 0.46 and β = 0.43 respectively, p < .001), were found. The model showed direct paths from intrinsic and introjected regulation to PA (β = 0.27 and β = 0.22, p < .05) and indirect paths from PMC through intrinsic motivation to PA (β = 0.13, p < .05). This study confirms that intrinsic motivation mediates the association between PMC and PA. Strategies targeting to build and develop children’s AMC and PMC, and fostering children’s intrinsic motivation should be targeted to promote children’s PA engagement and motor development.     

The mediational role of executive functions for the relationship between motor ability and academic performance in pediatric cancer survivors

IntroductionPediatric Cancer Survivors (PCS) bear a high risk for late effects within motor abilities (MAs) and executive functions (EFs). In typically developing children, these domains are interrelated and predictors of academic performance. The current study investigated (i) whether MAs and EFs are also interrelated in PCS, and (ii) whether EFs mediate the relation between MAs and academic performance.Methods78 PCS (7–16 years; M = 11.23; SD = 2.49) participated in this study. Three MAs were assessed: coordination and strength (using the German Motor Test) and endurance (using a cycle ergometer test). EFs were assessed: inhibition and cognitive flexibility (Color-Word Interference Test) and working memory (Block Recall test); and academic performance by questionnaire asking for children’s grade point average.ResultsPearson correlations revealed associations of coordination and strength with EFs and associations of all three MAs with academic performance. A multiple regression model revealed that among the three MAs, coordination was the only significant predictor of EFs (β = 0.42, p = .001). Lastly, mediation analyses revealed that the association of MAs with academic performance was mediated by EFs (indirect effect: β = 0.167, p = .003). Regarding individual motor abilities, this was only true for coordination and strength, but not for endurance.ConclusionResults show that MAs and EFs are interrelated in PCS and that EFs mediate the relationship between coordination and strength with academic performance. This may be important for the design of future physical activity interventions to improve MAs, EFs and academic performance.     

Relationship of fundamental movement skills and physical activity in children and adolescents: A systematic review

ObjectivesThis systematic review provides an overview of research elucidating the relationship between fundamental movement skills (FMS) and physical activity (PA) in children and adolescents.DesignSystematic review.MethodProspective studies were identified from searches in Cochrane Library, BioMed Central, Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), PubMed, Scirus and SciVerse Science Direct from 2000 through 2013. We screened the titles and abstracts for eligibility, rated the methodological quality of the studies, and extracted data.ResultsWe identified 23 studies meeting our relevancy criteria. The quality score of the studies ranged from 44% to 89%. Overall relationships between FMS and PA or relationships specific for gender and skill were identified in several studies. The variety of methods for assessing PA and FMS make the comparison of study results difficult. We found strong evidence from cross-sectional studies for a positive relationship between FMS and organized physical activities. Motor skill competency was only of low predictive value for the physical activity level in adults.ConclusionsThe results of this review suggest that a cause–effect relationship between FMS and PA is suspected but has not been demonstrated yet. The identification of a causal relationship appears very important to ensure feasibility of practical implementation. This could provide aids for decision making for teachers and coaches, but also for therapists' decision guidance to create training, lessons and therapy adequate to the target group.     

Before and after entering school: The development of attention and executive functions from 6 to 8 years in Finnish children

In this 2‐year prospective follow‐up study we examined typical and atypical development of attention and executive function (AEF) across the transition to school. The NEPSY‐battery was used to evaluate the AEFs of the children before school at 6 years of age. Two subgroups, typical AEF (n = 25) and atypical AEF (n = 25), were formed according to the performance in AEF tasks. Children were assessed again at 8 years, when they were at the 2nd grade. The same subtests of the NEPSY‐battery and the ATTEX behavioral rating completed by a teacher were used. The effects of AEF deficits were compared with and without controlling for IQ. The group effect was significant in four out of the six NEPSY subtests used. The atypical AEF group had problems especially on subtests measuring motor inhibition both at the age of 6 and 8. The group‐time interaction effect was found in the subtest measuring attentional shifting. A catch‐up effect on shifting skills was observed in the atypical AEF group by the age of 8 years. In school at the 2nd grade, the early AEF problems were still observable, and related especially to inattention problems. Our results support the interpretation that inhibitory problems are at the core of executive dysfunction, that the problems are stable from preschool to 2nd grade, and that the effects of early AEF problems go over and beyond intellectual deficits. Our results also support the use of performance based measures of inhibition as an important part of the neuropsychological evaluation for school readiness.     

The mediational role of motivation in the model of motor development in childhood: A longitudinal study

The aim of this study was twofold: first, to examine the stability of the hypothesized conceptual model of motor development (without and with including various types of motivation) when children are followed up one-year later, and second to examine longitudinally whether changes in one model variable predict changes in other variables, according to the hypothesized pathways in the model. A sample of 361 Spanish students (50.7% girls, 8–11 years old) voluntarily participated in this study. In relation to the first aim, structural equation modeling revealed the expected positive relationship between the model variables in both measurement times. That is: actual motor competence (MC) predicted physical activity (PA) (p < .001), perceived MC mediated the relationship between actual MC and PA (p < .001), and autonomous motivation mediated the relationship between perceived MC and PA (p < .05). Moreover, the comparison of the invariance analysis showed non-practical differences between the unconstrained model and the constrained model, supporting the stability of the model over time. In relation to the second aim, the hypothesized model in Time 2 controlling for Time 1 values showed that changes in children’s actual MC positively predicted changes in their perceived MC (p < .001), which in turn, predicted changes in their autonomous motivation (p < .001), and PA (p < .001) at Time 2. Based on these findings Physical Education teachers are recommended to foster children’s actual and perceived MC as well as their autonomous motivation over time in order to promote PA strategies for lifelong health.