Presence and search for meaning in sport: Initial construct validation

According to Frankl (1959), the will to meaning is a fundamental human motive. Perceiving life as meaningful is associated with a number of sources and positive outcomes. Similar findings emerged when looking at domain-specific meaning, such as work. Surprisingly, sport-specific meaning is yet to be empirically investigated or measured. Therefore, the purpose of this two-study project was to examine the psychometric properties of the Meaning in Sport Questionnaire (MSQ), a sport-specific meaning measure. Survey responses (n = 329) from Study 1 were used to assess factorial validity and measurement invariance for the MSQ. Results from Study 2 with a different sample (n = 402) supported initial convergent validity for the two subscales of presence and search for meaning in sport. The MSQ is a new measure that can be used to investigate the extent to which athletes perceive their sport to be meaningful and search for such meaning.     

Establishing the psychometric properties of the Self and Perceived-partner Authenticity in Relationships Scale-Short Form (AIRS-SF): Measurement invariance,reliability, and incremental validity

This article evaluates the psychometric properties of Self and Perceived-partner versions of the Authenticity in Relationships Scale (AIRS; Lopez & Rice, 2006). Two samples were collected. Sample 1 (N = 487) was comprised of romantically involved adults residing in the United States, recruited from the Amazon Mechanical Turk, who completed Self and Perceived-partner versions of the AIRS, along with a number of other self-report measures. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to establish measurement invariance across Self and Perceived-partner versions of the scale and eliminate non-essential items. The revised 12-item short-form (AIRS-SF) exhibited excellent reliability in the validation sample, as well as a holdout sample of romantically involved college students (N = 112). Multi-group path analysis provided additional evidence for the incremental validity of the AIRS-SF. Consistent with prior experimental work, the Perceived-partner AIRS-SF predicts relationship satisfaction and commitment through interpersonal trust, independent of attachment avoidance.     

Development and initial validation of the coaching life skills in sport questionnaire

ObjectivesResearchers have advocated for coaches to intentionally teach life skills to their athletes given the accrued developmental benefits. The purpose of this research was to develop and offer initial evidence of validity and reliability for a measure assessing the extent to which coaches are intentional in their approaches to teaching life skills through sport.DesignUsing two independent samples (n = 623; n = 817), three studies were conducted to develop and initially validate the Coaching Life Skills in Sport Questionnaire (CLSS-Q).MethodIn study one, the scale development and content validity processes of the initial measure were conducted. In study two, the factorial validity of the CLSS-Q was tested through exploratory structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analyses. Moreover, scale invariance, discriminant and convergent validity, and construct reliability were assessed. In study three, concurrent validity was assessed with the combined sample (N = 1440) using two theoretically linked constructs.ResultsThe results of the three studies provide initial evidence for the validity and reliability of the 5-factor 36-item CLSS-Q.ConclusionsThe CLSS-Q represents a useful scale for researchers interested in examining levels of intentionality in coaches' teaching of life skills through sport. As scale development is an ongoing process, further research is needed to continue to accumulate evidence for the validity and reliability of the CLSS-Q.     

The moral disengagement in doping scale

Statement of problemThe use of banned substances to enhance performance occurs in sport. Therefore, developing valid and reliable instruments that can predict likelihood to use banned substances is important.MethodWe conducted three studies. In Study 1, football players (N = 506) and athletes from a variety of team sports (N = 398) completed the Moral Disengagement in Doping Scale (MDDS). In Study 2, team sport athletes (N = 232) completed the MDDS and questionnaires measuring moral disengagement in sport, doping attitudes, moral identity, antisocial sport behavior, situational doping temptation, and task and ego goal orientations. A week later, a subsample (n = 102) completed the MDDS and indicated their likelihood to use a banned substance in a hypothetical situation. In Study 3, athletes (N = 201) from a variety of individual sports completed the MDDS and indicated their likelihood to use a banned substance in a hypothetical situation.ResultsThe results of Study 1 showed that a one-factor model fitted the data well, and the scale had measurement invariance across males and females. In Study 2, we provided evidence for convergent, concurrent, discriminant, and predictive validity, as well as test-rest reliability, of the scale. In Study 3, doping moral disengagement was positively related with reported likelihood and temptation to use a banned substance. The scale exhibited very good internal consistency across the three studies.ConclusionsIn conclusion, the MDDS can be used to measure moral disengagement in doping in team and individual sports.     

Assessing lifetime stressor exposure in sport performers: Associations with trait stress appraisals,health, well-being,and performance

Research has found that greater lifetime stressor exposure increases the risk for mental and physical health problems. Despite this, few studies have examined how stressors occurring over the entire lifespan affect sport performers’ health, well-being, and performance, partly due to the difficulty of assessing lifetime stressor exposure. To address this issue, we developed a sport-specific stress assessment module (Sport SAM) for the Stress and Adversity Inventory (STRAIN) and then analyzed the instrument’s usability, acceptability, validity, and test-retest reliability. Furthermore, we examined whether trait-like tendencies to appraise stressful situations as a challenge or threat mediated the association between lifetime stressor exposure and health, well-being, and performance. Participants were 395 sport performers (M_age = 22.50 years, SD = 5.33) who completed an online survey. Results revealed that the Sport SAM demonstrated good usability and acceptability, good concurrent validity in relation to the Adult STRAIN (rs = 0.23 to 0.29), and very good test-retest reliability (r_icc = 0.87 to 0.89). Furthermore, the Sport SAM was significantly associated with symptoms of depression (β = 0.21 to 0.24, ps ≤ .001) and anxiety (β = 0.13 to 0.19, ps ≤ .012), and general physical (β = 0.24 to 0.27, ps = ≤ 0.001) and mental (β = 0.23 to 0.32, p ≤ .001) health complaints. Finally, we found that associations between total lifetime non-sport and sport-specific stressor severity and health were mediated by trait stress appraisals. Consequently, these findings may help practitioners better identify sport performers who are at risk of developing stress-related health problems.     

Development and preliminary validation of the mindfulness inventory for sport

ObjectivesDespite the increasing prevalence of mindfulness-based interventions in sport, no context-specific instrument currently exists to measure mindfulness in sport. The Mindfulness Inventory for Sport (MIS) was devised using a three-stage approach, to measure one's ability to: (1) be aware of disruptive stimuli and their associated internal reactions; (2) adopt a non-judgmental attitude towards these stimuli and reactions; and (3) quickly refocus attention on goal-related cues.MethodIn stage 1, a pool of items was developed and assessed by six experts in the areas of mindfulness and instrument validation. In stage 2, exploratory factor analyses with data collected from undergraduate student-athletes (N = 370) resulted in a three-factor, 19-item version of the instrument. In stage 3, confirmatory analyses using structural equation modelling were conducted with a sample of elite athletes (N = 343).Results and conclusionA final 15-item three-factor version displayed an acceptable model fit, with little evidence of invariance demonstrated across sport type and partial invariance across gender. In addition, the subscales of the MIS displayed significant correlations with conceptually-related variables such as flow, worry, concentration disruption, and perfectionism.     

Rasch calibration of a unidimensional perfectionism inventory for sport

ObjectiveThe purposes of this study were to generate and calibrate a unidimensional sports perfectionism scale for competitive athletes using the Rasch model, and validate the scale through the convergent and known-difference validity approach.MethodThe instrument, called the Sport Perfectionism Scale (SPS), was administered to 323 undergraduate students at a university in the southeastern U.S., ranging in age from 17 to 44 yrs, who previously competed on their high school team or currently compete at the intercollegiate level.ResultsUsing the Rasch model, the level of item difficulty (i.e., most and least difficult) and the athlete's level (i.e., intensity) of perfectionism were estimated. Model-data fit was determined by Infit and Outfit statistics (≥0.5 and ≤1.5). With the exception of one item, the model fits the data well. Rasch analysis supported the measure of perfectionism in sport as a unidimensional construct. Data from the SPS were positively related with those from Stoeber, Otto, Pescheck, Becker, and Stoll's ([2007]. Perfectionism and competitive anxiety in athletes: differentiating striving for perfection and negative reactions to imperfection. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 959–969.) Perfectionism During Competitions measure (r = 0.63), and there was a significant difference in athlete's perfectionism between levels of competition, F (3, 314) = 5.21, p = 0.002, partial eta-squared, 0.05. This result supports convergent and known-difference evidence of validity for the SPS.ConclusionsThese results lend credence to using the Rasch model as a unique approach to validate evidence of perfectionism as a unidimensional construct in competitive sport.     

Contesting orientations: Measure construction and the prediction of sportspersonship

ObjectiveThis three-study investigation was undertaken to develop, validate, and test the Contesting Orientations Scale (COS), a new measure designed to assess individuals' tendencies to use contest-is-partnership and contest-is-war conceptual metaphors (i.e., contesting orientations) when competing (Shields & Bredemeier, 2009, 2011a).DesignThe research design was correlational. Following preliminary item creation and expert review, survey based studies were conducted to develop theoretically-based, psychometrically sound scales measuring contesting orientations.MethodIn Study 1, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed on a preliminary 39-item COS administered to a sample of high school athletes (N = 233). Study 2 used EFA to evaluate a revised 23- item COS with a second sample of high school athletes (N = 92) resulting in a final reduction of the measure to twelve items. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was then conducted on this 12-item COS, which proved an excellent fit to the data. A new sample of college athletes (N = 238) allowed Study 3 to (a) further examine the factorial validity of the COS, including gender invariance testing, (b) assess the concurrent validity of the COS via its correlations with goal orientations, empathy, moral identity, and moral disengagement; and, (c) assess the COS's incremental predictive utility for investigations of sportspersonship.Results and conclusionResults from the sequence of studies demonstrate that the 12-item, two-scale COS has good psychometric properties as assessed through EFA and CFA, good concurrent validity, and adds significantly to existing measures in the prediction of sportspersonship.     

The psychometric qualities of a short version of the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale – Revised Child version

The Experiences in Close Relationships Scale – Revised Child version (ECR-RC; Brenning, Soenens, Braet, & Bosmans, 2011a) is a valuable tool for measuring anxious and avoidant attachment to parents in middle childhood and adolescence. However, given its substantial length, the present study aimed to develop an abridged ECR-RC. Four separate samples were used to attain this goal. First (Sample 1, N = 1880; M = 12 years), item selection resulted in a 12-item version, comprising six items for attachment anxiety and six items for attachment avoidance. Next, psychometric properties of this brief ECR-RC were investigated in Sample 1 and cross-validated in an older sample (Sample 2, N = 310; M = 16 years) and in a clinical sample (Sample 3, N = 99; M = 14 years). In all three samples, comparison of the full and reduced ECR-RC revealed similar psychometric properties. In a final sample (Sample 4, N = 110; M = 18 years), we assessed reliability, factor structure and validity when administering the 12-item ECR-RC as a stand-alone instrument. In conclusion, the brief ECR-RC showed excellent reliability and validity.     

Psychometric properties and measurement invariance of Depression,Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS-21) across cultures

Cross-culturally measurement invariant instruments are useful for the assessment of mental symptoms across cultures. The current study aimed to investigate the psychometric properties and measurement invariance of the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS-21) (DASS) across Pakistan and Germany. German participants were recruited through an online survey (N = 1323), while Pakistani participants were recruited through online survey or paper-and-pencil survey (N = 1841). The DASS-21 showed good reliability, construct and structure validity in both countries. The DASS-21 indicated partial weak (stress subscale) and partial strong measurement invariance (depression and anxiety subscales) between both countries. Latent mean comparison of depression and anxiety symptoms between Pakistani and German students indicated that Pakistani university students experience more symptoms of depression and anxiety. Results suggest that the DASS-21 could be used in Pakistan and Germany, but caution should be taken when making direct comparisons between the two countries.     

Predicting moral attitudes and antisocial behavior in young team sport athletes: A self‐determination theory perspective

Identifying the factors associated with prosocial and antisocial behaviors in youth sport may provide evidence to inform interventions aimed at promoting prosocial behaviors and minimizing rule transgressions in young athletes. We investigated relations among social‐contextual factors (e.g., social support), personal motivational factors (e.g., psychological need satisfaction and motivation), young athletes’ attitudes toward prosocial (e.g., keeping winning in proportion) and antisocial (e.g., acceptance of cheating and gamesmanship) behaviors, and their actual rule violations during matches in two samples of athletes. Participants in Sample 1 were young team sport athletes (N = 355) and participants in Sample 2 were young male futsal players (N = 296). Athletes in Sample 1 completed validated self‐report measures of perceived autonomy support, basic need satisfaction, and autonomous and controlled motivation from self‐determination theory, moral attitudes, and past cheating behaviors. Athletes in Sample 2 completed identical measures and two additional behavioral measures: athletes’ self‐reported number of yellow cards received during competition in the last 6 months and the number of yellow cards athletes received from referees in the subsequent 2 months from competition records. We found significant relations between psychological need satisfaction and self‐determined motivation, and athletes’ moral attitudes in both samples. These effects held when statistically controlling for past behavior. Importantly, our prospective analysis of Sample 2 indicated that attitudes toward antisocial behaviors predicted athletes’ rule violations during subsequent tournament matches. Findings indicate that promoting autonomous motivation and need satisfaction through autonomy support may foster attitudes toward prosocial behaviors, and minimize rule transgressions, in young athletes.     

Autonomy support from parents and coaches: Synergistic or compensatory effects on sport-related outcomes of adolescent-athletes?

ObjectivesThis study examined how autonomy support from parents and autonomy support from coaches are associated with sport-related outcomes of adolescent-athletes. Two alternative hypotheses were proposed: (a) a synergistic socialization interaction in which high levels of autonomy support provided by parents and coaches are both needed to obtain the most positive sport-related outcomes, (b) a compensatory-protective interaction in which coaching autonomy support is more important for sport-related outcomes in athletes perceiving lower levels of parental autonomy support.DesignTwo studies using prospective designs.MethodStudy 1 was conducted with adolescent soccer players (N = 46) and Study 2 was conducted with gymnasts (N = 85). In both studies, athletes reported the extent to which they perceived their parents and coaches provided autonomy support. Athletes also completed scales assessing their motivation toward sport (Studies 1 and 2), situational motivation prior to and following a competition (Study 2), and need satisfaction (Study 1). Sport achievement and performance were also assessed in the form of goal attainment (Study 1), self-reported achievement following the competition (Study 2), and flow states (Study 2). Hierarchical moderated regressions were conducted in order to test our competing hypotheses.ResultsAnalyses provided support for the compensatory-protective interaction hypothesis. Coaching autonomy support was more strongly related to sport motivation, need satisfaction, sport achievement, and flow in athletes who perceived lower level of parental autonomy support.ConclusionsThis research program provided support for the study of the interactive effect of perceived autonomy support from distinct socialization agents (i.e., parents and coaches) and its impact on adolescent-athletes.     

A prospective multilevel examination of the relationship between cohesion and team performance in elite youth sport

The purpose of the current research was to (a) develop and establish the factor structure of the Czech and Slovak versions of the Youth Sport Environment Questionnaire (YSEQ; Eys, Loughead, Bray, & Carron, 2009) and (b) examine the relationship between team performance and cohesion with a sample of European elite youth sport teams. At time point one, with 352 elite youth athletes from 22 teams, support was obtained for a two factor structure underlying the YSEQ. Based on data collected at the second (N = 291) and third (N = 246) time points, multilevel analyses revealed that, when controlling for midseason cohesion, midseason team performance significantly and positively predicted task and social cohesion later in the season. Neither task nor social cohesion predicted team performance. In addition to adapting the YSEQ for use in a unique context, these findings reveal the nature of the cohesion-performance relationship in elite youth sport.     

Development of the Generic Multifaceted Automaticity Scale (GMAS) and preliminary validation for physical activity

ObjectivesThis article presents the validation of a Generic Multifaceted Automaticity Scale (GMAS) assessing the automatic properties of habitual behaviours.DesignA quantitative approach was adopted within various adult samples in order to confirm the internal and external validity of the GMAS pertaining to Physical Activity (PA).MethodStudy 1 investigated the content validity of a series of items among experts (N = 13) and respondents (N = 26). Study 2 examined the scale's construct validity for PA (N = 293). Study 3 tested the GMAS external validity (N = 161). Study 4 evaluated the internal consistency and predictive validity for the GMAS applied to transportation modes (N = 167). Study 5 used a 1-week prospective design and included Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB; Ajzen, 2012) variables in order to test the predictive validity of the GMAS for active transportation (N = 125).ResultsStudy 1 supported the fact that the 9 items primarily reflected one facet of automaticity. Study 2 validated the hierarchical structure of the scale. In Study 3, convergent validity was confirmed regarding PA through significant correlations with the Self-Report Behavioural Automaticity Index (SRBAI; Gardner et al., 2012) and predictive validity was supported by significant correlations with self-report PA behaviour. Study 4 confirmed its internal consistency and predictive validity. Study 5 demonstrated that the scores derived from the GMAS significantly predicted active transportation behaviour, above and beyond TPB constructs.DiscussionThe GMAS appears as a valid instrument for research on everyday PA behaviours.     

Doping use in sport teams: The development and validation of measures of team-based efficacy beliefs and moral disengagement from a cross-national perspective

ObjectivesThe main goal of this research focused on the development and validation of three instruments designed to assess athletes' self-regulatory efficacy in team contexts, team collective efficacy and team moral disengagement with relevance for doping use across three European countries.DesignThe research relied on three distinct studies. A first qualitative study focused on item development. The second study assessed the factor structure and internal reliability of each of the new team instruments. The third study provided evidence for instrument validity by assessing the hypothesis that efficacy measures and moral disengagement would contribute to team athletes' doping intentions. The latter two studies also focused on the relations among measures and on measurement reliability, both within and across countries.MethodThe first study relied on focus group data collected from twenty-one team sport professionals (mean age = 34; SD = 11.65). Four hundred and fourteen adolescent athletes (mean age = 16.69; SD = 1.55) participated in the second study, whereas seven hundred forty-nine adolescent team athletes (mean age = 16.43; SD = 1.69) participated in the third study. For the latter two studies, team athletes were recruited across Italy, Germany and Greece and provided data on the new team measures. Only athletes participating in the third study provided data on doping intentions.ResultsThe findings of the three studies supported the empirical goals of the investigation and provided evidence for the factor structure, reliability and validity of the team instruments. Furthermore, multi-group findings supported the hypothesis that the new instruments would have equivalent measurement and validity characteristics across the three European countries. The conclusions focus on the conceptual and practical implications of these findings.     

Social communication fears: Factor analysis and gender invariance of the short-form of the personal report of confidence as a speaker in Spain

Public speaking is a highly prevalent fear that prevents from successful social communication. The Personal Report of Confidence as a Speaker (PRCS) is one of the most commonly used measures to assess people’s fear of public speaking. However, few studies have evaluated its factor structure. In this paper, two studies analyzed the psychometric properties of the short form of the PRCS (Hook, Smith, & Valentiner, 2008) and its convergent validity with the Self Statements During Public Speaking (SSPS) scale in Spain. Study 1 (N = 190) provided information about exploratory factor analysis and internal consistency. Study 2, with a different sample (N = 392), complemented Study 1 with confirmatory factor analysis, internal consistency, convergent validity with SSPS and test of measurement invariance across gender groups. Results of exploratory factor analysis yielded a one factor solution. Different indices of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFI, TLI, SRMR, RMSEA) confirmed a good fit. Internal consistency was high in both studies and convergent validity with SSPS was found. Evidence of configural, metric and scalar invariance across gender groups was obtained. These findings support the use of the short form of the PRCS and suggest that it is a useful instrument for public speaking assessment.     

Body Shape Questionnaire: Psychometric properties of the short version (BSQ-8C) and norms from the general Swedish population

There is a need for brief, sensitive, and reliable instruments for contextual assessment of body dissatisfaction. Suitable selection and optimal use of psychological assessment instruments requires appropriate psychometric as well as normative data. Two studies were conducted to investigate the psychometric properties and collect general population norms for a short, eight item version of the Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ-8C). In the first study, a sample of undergraduate students (N = 182) was recruited to investigate the psychometric properties of the BSQ-8C, while in the second study a sample from the general population of Swedish women aged 18–30 years (N = 747) was used to collect norms. The test–retest reliability, internal consistency, and convergent validity for BSQ-8C were high. Given the questionnaire's briefness and good psychometric properties, particularly when used in conjunction with norms, the BSQ-8C is considered a valuable instrument for measuring body shape dissatisfaction among young adult women.     

The TRAMS: The Team-Referent Attributions Measure in Sport

ObjectivesTo provide initial evidence for the construct, concurrent, and predictive validity of the Team-Referent Attributions Measure in Sport (the TRAMS).DesignCross-sectional in Studies 1 and 2, and multiple time points in Study 3.MethodStudy 1 required participants (N = 500) to complete the TRAMS for their “least successful” and “most successful” performances in the preceding three months. In Study 2, after performance, participants (N = 515) completed the TRAMS and the Causal Dimension Scale for Teams (CDS-T; Greenlees et al., 2005). Study 3 required participants (N = 165) to complete a measure of pre-competition collective-efficacy prior to performance (Day 1, Time 1), the TRAMS following performance (Day 1, Time 2), and a measure of subsequent collective-efficacy prior to subsequent performance (Day 7–9, Time 3).ResultsStudy 1 supported the factor structure of the TRAMS across least successful and most successful conditions. Study 2 provided further support for the factor structure of the TRAMS, together with evidence of concurrent validity with subscales of the CDS-T. Study 3 revealed, following team defeat, interactions between controllability and generalisability dimensions: Controllability had a significant effect upon subsequent collective-efficacy when causes of team defeat were also perceived to generalise across situations and/or across teams. Following team victory, stable attributions were positively associated with subsequent collective-efficacy.ConclusionsThis article provides initial evidence for the validity of the TRAMS and demonstrates for team-referent attributions the theoretical advantages of examining a broader conceptualisation of generalisability attributions and interactive effects of attributions.     

Development and validation of the Eating Disorders Screen for Athletes (EDSA): A brief screening tool for male and female athletes

ObjectivesTo develop and validate the Eating Disorders Screen for Athletes (EDSA), a brief eating disorders screening tool for use in both male and female athletes. Methods: Data from Division I athletes at a Midwestern university (N = 434) were used to conduct exploratory factor analysis (EFA) by gender. Data from athletes competing at various levels at universities across the United States (N = 862) were then used to conduct confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curve analysis by gender. Athletes from a range of lean and non-lean sports were included. Gender-specific empirically derived cut-offs on the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire were used to classify high eating disorder risk for ROC curve analysis. Measurement invariance by gender, level of competition, and sport type was also examined. Results: A six-item, one-factor structure for the EDSA was supported by EFA and CFA in both genders, and internal consistency was good for both male (α = 0.80) and female athletes (α = 0.86). ROC curve analyses indicated that the EDSA was highly accurate in predicting eating disorder risk status and identified a score of 3.33 as the optimal cut-off for both male (sensitivity = 0.96, specificity = .80) and female athletes (sensitivity = 0.96, specificity = .64). Results also supported strong measurement invariance for the EDSA by gender, level of competition (Division I versus club), and sport type (lean versus non-lean). Conclusions: The EDSA shows promise as a brief screening tool to identify male and female athletes at risk for eating disorders.     

Self-compassion and women athletes' responses to emotionally difficult sport situations: An evaluation of a brief induction

ObjectivesTo examine self-compassion as a way to promote healthy responses in women athletes when faced with emotionally difficult sport-specific situations.DesignPhase I, cross-sectional; Phase II, experimental.MethodsIn Phase I, participants (N = 101; M_age = 20.0, SD = 2.8 years) completed measures of self-compassion, self-esteem, and narcissism, as well as reactions, thoughts, and emotions in response to hypothetical (i.e., responsible for a team loss) and recalled scenarios. Participants returning for Phase II were randomly assigned to a brief self-compassion induction (n = 21), self-esteem induction (n = 20), or writing control (n = 18) group. Following the induction, they responded to the same hypothetical scenario as in Phase I.Phase I resultsAfter partialling out self-esteem and narcissism, self-compassion was related (p < .01) to negative affect (r = −.40), catastrophizing thoughts (r = −.30), personalizing thoughts (r = −.32), and behavioral equanimity (r = .28) for the hypothetical scenario. A similar pattern was found for the recalled scenario.Phase II resultsA MANOVA with Phase I self-compassion, self-esteem, and narcissism as covariates resulted in a non-significant group by time interaction, Wilks' Lambda = .75, F(12,96) = 1.27, p = .25. Follow-up hierarchical regression analysis showed Phase I levels of self-compassion as the only significant predictor for negative affect, personalizing thoughts, and behavioral equanimity.ConclusionsWomen athletes with higher self-compassion levels generally responded in healthier ways to emotionally difficult hypothetical and recalled situations in sport than their less self-compassionate counterparts. However, future research needs continued focus on evaluating self-compassion inductions and interventions for use in sport.