Moral and angry emotions provoked by informal social control

Informal social control is the communication of disapproval by one individual to another individual (the perpetrator) who has transgressed a social norm. The present research examined the conditions under which social control provokes moral versus angry emotions in the perpetrator. The roles of perceived deviance and the appraisal of the legitimacy of social control as predictors of these emotions were specifically considered. In two studies, participants imagined themselves in situations in which they engaged in moderately uncivil acts and then received social control (or not). Perpetrators’ perception of the deviance of their behaviour (Studies 1 and 2), and their explicit appraisals of the legitimacy of social control were measured (Study 2). Moral and angry emotions were also assessed. Social control intensified moral and particularly angry emotions, compared to situations in which deviant acts were performed, but no social control was received. In addition, perceived deviance as well as the politeness of the social control importantly influenced angry emotions through their effects on appraised legitimacy.     

Emotion in social reflection and comparison situations: intuitive, systematic, and exploratory approaches

We asked 26 subjects to recall and describe social situations in which either a close or a distant other performed better or worse than the self at an activity that was either high or low in relevance to the self. Subjects then rated the extent to which they experienced each of 18 different emotions in each situation. They also rated each situation on a series of dimensions that Smith and Ellsworth (1985) found to be consequential for differentiating emotions. In a series of analyses guided by intuitive hypotheses, the Smith and Ellsworth theoretical approach, and a relatively unconstrained, open-ended exploration of the data, the situations were found to vary with respect to the emotions of pride, jealousy or envy, pride in the other, boredom, and happiness. We discuss the results in terms of their relevance to emotion theories and to the self-evaluation maintenance model of social behavior.     

Emotion regulation during social remembering: differences between emotions elicited during an event and emotions elicited when talking about it

This paper examines emotion regulation as a function of autobiographical remembering in social contexts. Two studies (n = 38 and 123, respectively) are presented that provide evidence that autobiographical remembering in social settings can result in changes in the emotions associated with an experience. However, the results also suggest that whether changes occur depends on features of the recall context, including the gender of participants, and the responses of their listeners. Across both studies, men showed greater emotional benefits from talking about events than women. Moreover, greater listener agreement was associated with greater benefits for emotion. The results are discussed in terms of functions of autobiographical remembering, gender, social support, and emotion regulation.     

The other side of rumination: reflective pondering as a strategy for regulating emotions in social situations

Recent studies have questioned the idea of rumination as a unitary dysfunctional process and identified an adaptive subcomponent: reflective pondering. We tested whether reflective pondering could represent an adaptive strategy of regulating emotions, and contrasted it with reappraisal and acceptance, strategies linked to major psychotherapeutic approaches. Participants (103 students) received training in one of these and were exposed to a negative mood induction consisting of social scenarios, both in the presence and in the absence of the specific emotion regulation instruction. Acceptance was more useful than reflective pondering in impacting negative emotions and anxiety. Reappraisal was more efficient than pondering for anxiety. However, moderation analysis showed that social anxiety (SA) levels influenced the comparative efficiency of reappraisal and acceptance as contrasted to reflective pondering for negative emotions and anxiety. Participants low in SA made equal use of all strategies, while for those high in SA reappraisal and acceptance were more efficient than pondering. Our results provide preliminary evidence that reflective pondering can, in some circumstances, be an adaptive regulation strategy.     

Meditative dialogue: A tool for engaging students in collaborative learning processes

This paper describes a teaching tool that uses meditation practices and postmodern practices to promote a sense of collaboration and mutual responsibility for learning in a final Master's in Social Work class at the University of New Hampshire. It outlines a process through which students and instructor aim to become equal partners in developing collective knowledges, and participate in the collaborative practices they are learning as they move from positions of inexpert learners to expert colleagues. It includes a discussion of students' evaluation of the meditative dialogue process and its impact on their professional development.     

Causal learning is collaborative: Examining explanation and exploration in social contexts

Causal learning in childhood is a dynamic and collaborative process of explanation and exploration within complex physical and social environments. Understanding how children learn causal knowledge requires examining how they update beliefs about the world given novel information and studying the processes by which children learn in collaboration with caregivers, educators, and peers. The objective of this article is to review evidence for how children learn causal knowledge by explaining and exploring in collaboration with others. We review three examples of causal learning in social contexts, which elucidate how interaction with others influences causal learning. First, we consider children’s explanation-seeking behaviors in the form of “why” questions. Second, we examine parents’ elaboration of meaning about causal relations. Finally, we consider parents’ interactive styles with children during free play, which constrains how children explore. We propose that the best way to understand children’s causal learning in social context is to combine results from laboratory and natural interactive informal learning environments.     

Perceiving emotions: Cueing social categorization processes and attentional control through facial expressions

Individuals spontaneously categorise other people on the basis of their gender, ethnicity and age. But what about the emotions they express? In two studies we tested the hypothesis that facial expressions are similar to other social categories in that they can function as contextual cues to control attention. In Experiment 1 we associated expressions of anger and happiness with specific proportions of congruent/incongruent flanker trials. We also created consistent and inconsistent category members within each of these two general contexts. The results demonstrated that participants exhibited a larger congruency effect when presented with faces in the emotional group associated with a high proportion of congruent trials. Notably, this effect transferred to inconsistent members of the group. In Experiment 2 we replicated the effects with faces depicting true and false smiles. Together these findings provide consistent evidence that individuals spontaneously utilise emotions to categorise others and that such categories determine the allocation of attentional control.     

Simplified learning in complex situations: knowledge partitioning in function learning

The authors explored the phenomenon that knowledge is not always integrated and consistent but may be partitioned into independent parcels that may contain mutually contradictory information. In 4 experiments, using a function learning paradigm, a binary context variable was paired with the continuous stimulus variable of a to-be-learned function. In the first 2 experiments, when context predicted the slope of a quadratic function, generalization was context specific. Because context did not predict function values, it is suggested that people use context to gate separate learning of simpler partial functions. The 3rd experiment showed that partitioning also occurs with a decreasing linear function, whereas the 4th study showed that partitioning is absent for a linearly increasing function. The results support the notion that people simplify complex learning tasks by acquiring independent parcels of knowledge.     

Involving students in a blended course via teacher's initiation in Web-enhanced collaborative learning

Teachers of application software in Taiwan have traditionally applied disjointed and out-of-context examples in their teaching, which usually result in ineffective learning outcomes. A Web-enhanced, collaborative learning approach was therefore adopted to help students become involved in a course more positively. Additionally, the teacher provided initiation, establishing the essential knowledge and required skills for students at the beginning of the course in order to help students climb the learning curve. The results showed that students who received Web-enhanced collaborative learning with initiation were significantly more involved than those who did not receive the initiation. Moreover, findings also revealed that the initiation contributed to significant increases in students' involvement at the end of the course. The implications for teachers, schools, and scholars who plan to provide Web-based learning for their students are also discussed.     

Teachers and students: Reflections on social control and future performance

To instruct consists of arranging controls between teacher, student, and subject matter. Initial controls must emanate from the teacher since those of the subject matter are minimal, crude, or missing. Teachers mand students to behave in certain ways with respect to a given subject matter. Eventually, however, the teacher must transfer the teacher mediated and managed control of the student to natural controls functioning directly through student interaction with the subject matter. Difficulty in doing this occurs due to the reinforcers for both student and teacher derived from social contact. Nevertheless, the student eventually must be taught to interact with the subject matter independent of teacher involvement if the student is to maintain effective contact with the subject matter beyond the period of formal instruction.     

Marijuana-related problems and social anxiety: the role of marijuana behaviors in social situations

Individuals with elevated social anxiety appear particularly vulnerable to marijuana-related problems. In fact, individuals with social anxiety may be more likely to experience marijuana-related impairment than individuals with other types of anxiety. It is therefore important to determine whether constructs particularly relevant to socially anxious individuals play a role in the expression of marijuana-related problems in this vulnerable population. Given that both social avoidance and using marijuana to cope with negative affect broadly have been found to play a role in marijuana-related problems, the current study utilized a new measure designed to simultaneously assess social avoidance and using marijuana to cope in situations previously identified as anxiety-provoking among those with elevated social anxiety. The Marijuana Use to Cope with Social Anxiety Scale (MCSAS) assessed behaviors regarding 24 social situations: marijuana use to cope in social situations (MCSAS-Cope) and avoidance of social situations if marijuana was unavailable. In Study 1, we found preliminary support for the convergent and discriminant validity and internal consistency of the MCSAS scales. In Study 2, we examined if MCSAS scores were related to marijuana problems among those with (n = 44) and without (n = 44) clinically elevated social anxiety. Individuals with clinically meaningful social anxiety were more likely to use marijuana to cope in social situations and to avoid social situations if marijuana was unavailable. Of importance, MCSAS-Cope uniquely mediated the relationship between social anxiety group status and marijuana-related problems. Results highlight the importance of contextual factors in assessing marijuana-related behaviors among high-risk populations.     

Intergroup emotions and gateway groups: Introducing multiple social identities into the study of emotions in conflict

After 2 decades of extensive empirical studies on affective intergroup processes, it is now clear that emotional processes play a critical role in the dynamics of intergroup conflict. However, it seems that much of the research in this domain views intergroup relations in a dichotomous manner of pure in‐groups and out‐groups despite the developments in the realm of social identity that suggest otherwise. We here suggest that the incorporation of more complex social identity models into the study of affective social science can not only help to better understand intergroup conflict dynamics but can also offer new possible venues for conflict resolution. Specifically, we claim that the presence of groups with multiple identities, which include both the in‐group's and the out‐group's identity (e.g., biracial groups that encompass both a White and a Black social identity) can impact intergroup emotional processes between the different groups comprising those multiple identities (e.g., between Whites and Blacks). Accordingly, we review recent developments in the literatures of emotion in intergroup conflict and multiple social identity and offer a conceptual integration of the two. Thus, we attempt to enrich the theory in both fields, better explain intergroup conflict, and possibly pave the way for the development of novel conflict resolution methods.     

Emotion and the construal of social situations: inferences of cooperation versus competition from expressions of anger, happiness, and disappointment

The notion that emotional expressions regulate social life by providing information is gaining popularity. Prior research on the effects of emotional expressions on observers' inferential processes has focused mostly on inferences regarding the personality traits of the expresser, such as dominance and affiliation. We extend this line of research by exploring the possibility that emotional expressions shape observers' construal of social situations. Across three vignette studies, an interaction partner's expressions of anger, compared to expressions of happiness or disappointment, led observers to construe hypothetical situations as less cooperative, both in dyads and groups. These effects occurred even when factual information regarding the cooperativeness or competitiveness of the situation was provided, attesting to the power of emotional expressions in shaping the construal of social situations. Results are discussed in relation to appraisal theory, reverse appraisals, emotions as social information theory, and the emergence of cooperation in groups and cultures.     

Emotion and the construal of social situations: Inferences of cooperation versus competition from expressions of anger,happiness, and disappointment

The notion that emotional expressions regulate social life by providing information is gaining popularity. Prior research on the effects of emotional expressions on observers’ inferential processes has focused mostly on inferences regarding the personality traits of the expresser, such as dominance and affiliation. We extend this line of research by exploring the possibility that emotional expressions shape observers’ construal of social situations. Across three vignette studies, an interaction partner's expressions of anger, compared to expressions of happiness or disappointment, led observers to construe hypothetical situations as less cooperative, both in dyads and groups. These effects occurred even when factual information regarding the cooperativeness or competitiveness of the situation was provided, attesting to the power of emotional expressions in shaping the construal of social situations. Results are discussed in relation to appraisal theory, reverse appraisals, emotions as social information theory, and the emergence of cooperation in groups and cultures.     

Triadic and collaborative play by gorillas in social games with objects

Interaction with others over objects has until recently been thought lacking in the social play of non-human great apes, in contrast to that of children; even now, only bonobos have been observed to engage in social play involving objects. Human children’s triadic interactions with objects involve joint attention, showing and giving, communication that maintains interaction, and sharing of emotions and experiences. We question assertions that chimpanzees, and non-human great apes in general, lack the key characteristics of children’s collaborative play. Here, we show that zoo gorillas play games that are both triadic and collaborative. These games were videotaped at the San Francisco Zoo in five different years and involved five different pairings of gorillas. The context was in most cases playfully competitive, involving objects such as balls, bags and leather pieces as foci of joint attention; the ostensible goal in most games was to gain or keep possession of a particular object. In some episodes, roles as possessor or pursuer of an object were exchanged many times; in others, one gorilla retained possession of an object but encouraged pursuit from a partner. Through gaze and gesture, gorillas invited others to: share interest in and attention to objects; share patterns of play; and re-engage after breaks in play. Sometimes, gorillas would assist others in their efforts to engage in collaborative play: older gorillas encouraged younger partners by ‘self-handicapping’ their own actions. Collaborative games may occur later in the ontogeny of gorillas than in humans, and depend on the challenges and artifacts available in a particular group’s habitat.     

The origins of social emotions and self-regulation in toddlerhood: New evidence

In recent years, there has been increased attention to the development of “moral,” “social”, or “self-conscious” emotions, such as embarrassment, shame, and pride, in 2- and 3-year olds. In the present study, 17-month-olds' behaviours in several contexts were observed; and observations of behaviours of their parents were obtained. Results indicated that toddlers did react appropriately to the situations, and their behaviours in the semi-naturalistic situations cohered as three factors: a guilt factor, an embarrassment factor, and an anxiety/inhibition factor. Embarrassed behaviour included a smile accompanied by indications of embarrassment (gaze aversion, lip press, lip bite, and/or body touching/self-adaptors). Moreover, parental behaviours systematically predicted children's behaviour patterns, but self-recognition was unrelated to most behaviours. Implications and suggestions for further research are discussed.     

社会心理学中的启动研究:范式与挑战

启动效应被严格界定为先前刺激对后续无关情境中的行为反应产生的无意识影响,而且启动对象应是某种认知表征或思维过程。启动研究最早源于认知心理学领域,后被用于社会心理学研究中,并逐渐发展出概念启动、心理定势启动和序列启动三大启动范式及诸多新技术。已有研究存在启动术语混淆和实验者效应等内外部效度问题,其中最大的争议为启动研究结果的可重复性问题。未来研究应致力于解决这些问题,并探讨启动的作用机制。     

Social phobia in youth: the diagnostic utility of feared social situations

The present study evaluated the utility of parent- and child-reported social fears for reaching a diagnosis of social phobia in youth. The diagnostic utility of (a) the number of fears and (b) specific feared social situations was examined. The sample included 140 youth and their parents: youth diagnosed with social phobia (n=50), youth diagnosed with generalized anxiety disorder or separation anxiety disorder but not social phobia (n=49), and youth without an anxiety disorder (n=41). Youth and their parents were interviewed separately using the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children and Parents. Analyses indicate that a cut score of 4 parent-endorsed social fears optimally distinguished youth with and without social phobia. Analyses of child-reported fears did not identify a meaningful cut score. Conditional probability and odds ratio analyses indicated that several specific social fears have high diagnostic efficiency, and others were found to have limited diagnostic efficiency. Results are discussed with regard to informing diagnostic interviews and diagnostic systems for social phobia in youth.     

The relationship between ADHD symptoms and driving behavior in college students: The mediating effects of negative emotions and emotion control

Previous research has shown a relationship between attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and driving anger and adverse driving outcomes. Moreover, adults with ADHD symptoms express their emotions in more aggressive ways, indicating a lack of emotion control. The present study surveyed 246 college students to examine the relationship among ADHD symptoms, negative emotions, emotion control, and driving anger and safe driving behavior. Mediating effects of negative emotions and emotional control on the relationship between ADHD symptoms and self-reported driving anger and safe driving behavior were also examined. Both negative emotions and emotion control were significant mediators of the relationship between ADHD symptoms and driving anger, but not safe driving behavior. Mediation was stronger for ADHD-Hyperactive/Impulsive symptoms than for ADHD-Inattention symptoms. These results may provide some insight on how to design training programs for individuals with ADHD symptoms to increase driving safety.     

The necessity of observing real life situations: Palestinian‐Israeli violence as a laboratory for learning about social behaviour

Social psychology emerged in the early part of the last century as a distinct discipline that focused on the study of social behaviour of individuals and collectives. Over time, however, social psychology has relatively ignored the ‘social’ part of the equation and has become mainly concerned with individual behaviour. The major part of social psychological research was carried out in the artificial context of the experimental laboratory. Studying social behaviour in real life contexts is essential, not only to return social psychology to its roots, but also to ensure that our contributions are both theoretically rich and socially valuable. Observation of real life situations is essential if we want to advance our understanding of how individuals and collectives behave. To illustrate the importance of a contextually rich social psychology and the usefulness of natural observations, the recent violent confrontation between the Israelis and the Palestinians is described and analysed, focusing on social behaviours of Israeli Jews. In conclusion, it is argued that social psychology should strive towards equilibrium between natural and experimental approaches, between personal and contextual emphases and between micro and macro perspectives. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.