Cognitive Links Between Fear Of Failure And Perfectionism

This study investigated links between three forms of perfectionism and beliefs associated with fear of failure (FF). College students (N = 372) enrolled in physical activity classes completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale and Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory in a single session. After controlling for other forms of perfectionism, only socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) was strongly associated with beliefs that failure led to aversive interpersonal consequences (i.e., important others losing interest, upsetting important others). Other-oriented perfectionism (OOP) exhibited a weak negative relation with beliefs that failure would lead to devaluation of one’s self-estimate; individuals who held the highest standards for others’ behavior had the weakest beliefs that failure would lead to them devaluing their self-estimate. Self-oriented perfectionism (SOP) was not associated with any beliefs that failure led to aversive consequences; however, when SOP and OOP were simultaneously elevated, they contributed positively to fears of experiencing shame and embarrassment (above and beyond main effects of SPP). Collectively these findings indicated that FF was not ubiquitous with all forms of perfectionism because the specific beliefs about the consequences of failure that underlie different forms of perfectionism varied tremendously. This research was supported in part by a grant from the College of Health & Human Development, The Pennsylvania State University.     

A methodological note on the interactive and main effects of dualistic personality dimensions: An example using the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism

The goal of this methodological note was to outline the importance of considering the interactive and main effects of dualistic personality dimensions by presenting an example grounded in the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism (Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010). A study was conducted with a sample of 98 university students to examine the associations between four subtypes of perfectionism and academic performance. Results of moderated regression analyses revealed a non-significant interaction between self-oriented (SOP) and socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP). Nonetheless, the four hypotheses of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism were supported in the context of a compensatory model showing a significant and positive main effect of SOP along with a negative and significant main effect of SPP. This methodological note contributes to the literature by offering clear guidelines on how the two main effects of SOP and SPP (and their resulting predicted values) can be used to test the four hypotheses of the 2 × 2 model despite the absence of a significant interaction between SOP and SPP.     

Developmental Trajectories of Maladaptive Perfectionism in Middle Childhood

The developmental trajectories of maladaptive perfectionism, along with their consequences and origins, were examined in middle childhood. A sample of Singaporean children and their parents (N = 302) were recruited for a longitudinal study when the children were 7 years old. Subsequent follow‐up assessments were made at ages 8, 9, and 11. A multimethod approach was adopted where parent reports, child reports, and observational data on a dyadic interaction task were obtained. Using latent class growth modeling, four distinct classes were obtained for critical self‐oriented perfectionism (SOP‐C), whereas two classes emerged for socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP). Children with high and/or increasing SOP‐C and SPP trajectories constituted 60% and 78% of the sample, respectively. For both SOP‐C and SPP, trajectories with high initial status were associated with higher internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Parental intrusiveness and negative parenting predicted high and/or increasing SOP‐C trajectories, whereas the child temperament dimension of surgency predicted high SPP trajectory. Both SOP‐C and SPP trajectories tended to co‐occur, suggesting a mutually reinforcing process. This study yields important findings that help advance current understanding of the emergence and developmental pathways of maladaptive perfectionism in children.     

Self‐oriented perfectionism and its relationship to selective attention: An experimental examination using social cognitive paradigm1

The cognitive biases associated with perfectionism include a selective attention to failure and the discounting of success. The present study experimentally focused on the relation between self‐oriented perfectionism (SOP) and selective attention using the social cognitive paradigm. Forty undergraduate students who were identified as either high or low in SOP were asked to perform modified versions of the Stroop task. The results suggest that participants with high SOP did not take longer to respond to failure words than to neutral words, but their reaction time to failure words was longer than that of participants with low SOP. These findings provided the basis for cognitive behavioral biases for perfectionism.     

The relationships between socially prescribed perfectionism,in‐group affect,negative urgency,and disordered eating in women

Socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) is often considered as a key risk factor for disordered eating (DE). However, current conceptualizations of SPP largely assume that this perfectionism pressure is non‐specific (i.e., a global pressure), despite research indicating that for females experiencing DE, female‐dominated groups impose this pressure (as a perceived norm). Furthermore, this relationship may be mediated by a negative reaction to this pressure, in the form of impulsivity (or negative urgency). To date, no research has investigated whether the relationship between SPP and DE is mediated by negative urgency, nor has there been research clarifying how in‐group identification relates to DE, independent of SPP and negative urgency. To address these gaps, we assessed these variables in 147 female dieters (M_age = 25.12 years, SD = 3.08) using a cross‐sectional design. Consistent with our hypotheses, negative urgency fully mediated the link between female‐based SPP and disordered eating, while female‐based in‐group affect (identification) was predictive of disordered eating (although the latter relationship was not sustained in a multiple regression model). These findings suggest that the SPP from other women may relate to DE through increasing negative urgency, and that the link between in‐group (female) affect and DE may be better explained by SPP's link to DE.     

Self-Critical Perfectionism,Daily Interpersonal Sensitivity,and Stress Generation: a Four-Year Longitudinal Study

This study of 145 community adults examined heightened interpersonal-sadness sensitivity as a mediator of the relationship between self-critical (SC) perfectionism and stress generation four years later. Participants completed questionnaires assessing perfectionism dimensions at Time 1, baseline depressive symptoms at Time 1 and Year 3, daily negative social interactions and affect for 14 consecutive days at Month 6 and Year 3, and a contextual-threat stress interview at Year 4. Path analyses indicated that SC perfectionism predicted daily interpersonal-sadness sensitivity (i.e., greater increases in sadness in response to increases in negative social interactions) between Month 6 and Year 3. This, in turn, explained why individuals with higher SC perfectionism had greater interpersonal stress generation four years later, controlling for the effects of depressive symptoms. Findings also demonstrated that responding to negative social interactions with broader negative affect or accumulated negative social interactions did not mediate the prospective relation between SC perfectionism and interpersonal stress generation. SC perfectionism was not related to Year 4 noninterpersonal stress generation or independent stress. Findings highlight the importance of targeting interpersonal-sadness sensitivity in order to reduce the propensity of SC perfectionistic individuals to generate negative interpersonal life events several years into the future.     

Perfectionism, intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation, and motivated strategies for learning: a multidimensional analysis of university students

We investigated the interrelations between dimensions of perfectionism and measures of academic motivation and learning strategies in university students. When partial correlation analysis was employed to examine the unique relation between specific perfectionism subscales and motivation/learning scales, self-oriented perfectionism was significantly related to students’ motivation and learning strategies in positive, adaptive ways whereas socially prescribed perfectionism was related in negative, maladaptive ways. Self-oriented perfectionists were motivated primarily by extrinsic compensation for their academic work whereas socially prescribed perfectionists were more motivated by recognition from others. Self-oriented perfectionism was significantly positively associated with self-efficacy for learning and performance, adaptive metacognitive and cognitive learning strategies, and effective resource management. Socially prescribed perfectionism was associated negatively with these measures. In addition, self-oriented perfectionism was associated positively with intrinsic goal orientation for a specific course, task value, and critical thinking whereas socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with test anxiety and a decreased likelihood of help-seeking. The theoretical importance of these findings and the implications for devising strategic counseling interventions are discussed.     

Testing the Bivalent Fear of Evaluation Model of Social Anxiety: The Relationship between Fear of Positive Evaluation,Social Anxiety,and Perfectionism

The Bivalent Fear of Evaluation (BFOE) model of social anxiety proposes that fear of negative evaluation (FNE) and fear of positive evaluation (FPE) play distinct roles in social anxiety. Research is however lacking in terms of how FPE is related to perfectionism and how these constructs interact to predict social anxiety. Participants were 382 individuals from the general community and included an oversampling of individuals with social anxiety. Measures of FPE, FNE, perfectionism, and social anxiety were administered. Results were mostly consistent with the predictions made by the BFOE model and showed that accounting for confounding variables, FPE correlated negatively with high standards but positively with maladaptive perfectionism. FNE was also positively correlated with maladaptive perfectionism, but there was no significant relationship between FNE and high standards. Also consistent with BFOE model, both FNE and FPE significantly moderated the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and social anxiety with the relationship strengthened at high levels of FPE and FNE. These findings provide additional support for the BFOE model and implications are discussed.     

社交媒体自我控制失败影响硕士生主观幸福感的心理机制

为探讨社交媒体自我控制失败、时间效能感和消极完美主义对硕士生主观幸福感的作用机制,采用问卷法对广东省408名硕士研究生进行施测。结果发现：（1）社交媒体自我控制失败显著负向预测主观幸福感;（2）时间效能感在社交媒体自控失败和主观幸福感间起部分中介作用;（3）消极完美主义在社交媒体自控失败和时间效能感的关系中起调节作用,具体表现为对于高消极完美主义者,社交媒体自控失败对时间效能感的负向影响更大。     

Are attachment styles differentially related to interpersonal perfectionism and binge eating symptoms?

In the current study we aimed to examine the association between attachment styles towards father and mother, perfectionistic self-promotion (PSP), socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP), and binge eating symptoms in a sample of 328 late adolescents (mean age 17.1 years). It was examined whether anxiously and avoidantly attached adolescents would differentially cope with their insecure feelings. It was hypothesized that anxiously attached adolescents would, through hyperactivating strategies, be hypersensitive to the expectations of others. Avoidantly attached adolescents were hypothesized to present a perfect image of the self, because of their deactivating emotion regulation. Furthermore, the mediating role of perfectionism in the relation between attachment representations and binge eating symptoms was examined. Results showed that anxious attachment was significantly positively associated with PSP, SPP, and binge eating. Avoidant attachment towards mother was only positively associated with SPP, whereas avoidant attachment towards father was positively associated with PSP and binge eating. PSP fully mediated the relation between avoidant attachment towards father and binge eating. Interestingly, the current findings showed the importance of examining attachment representations towards both parents.     

Mother's personality and infant temperament

We examined if perfectionism and the perception of being an anxious person were associated with more negative infant temperament ratings by the mothers. 386 women (mean age = 30.08; standard deviation = 4.21) in their last trimester of pregnancy completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS), the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and an item about their perception of being or not an anxious person. The Portuguese version of the Diagnostic Interview for Genetic Studies and the Operational Criteria Checklist for Psychotic Illness were used to generate diagnoses according to DSM-IV and ICD-10 criteria. After delivery, women completed eight items of the Difficult Infant Temperament Questionnaire (developed by our team) and filled in, again, the BDI-II and were interviewed with the DIGS. Women with depression (DSM-IV/ICD-10) and probable cases of depression using different cut-offs adjusted to Portuguese prevalence (BDI-II), in pregnancy and postpartum, were excluded. The Difficult Infant Temperament Questionnaire showed to have factorial validity and internal consistency. There was a statistically significant negative correlation between perfectionism total scale score and item 6 from the temperament scale (“is your baby irritable or fussy?”). Considering MPS 3-factor solution found for pregnancy there was also a statistically significant negative correlation between SOP and the same item. Women with low SOP differed from those with medium and high SOP in the total temperament score. Moreover, the low SOP group differed from the medium group on items three and four scores. There were no significant associations with SPP, which is the dimension more closely associated with negative outcomes. There was an association between anxiety trait status (having it or not) and scoring low, medium or high in the infant temperament scale. The proportion of anxious vs. non-anxious women presenting a high score on the infant temperament scale was higher (24.2% vs. 12.9%). Linear regressions showed that SOP (low vs. medium/high) offered a significant contribution to the prediction of total temperament scale score and items 3 and 4 scores, but a logistic regression did not confirm trait anxiety as a significant predictor of mother's infant temperament perception. Concluding, a major result concerns the fact that higher levels of adaptive perfectionism (i.e. SOP) are associated (and predict) a less negative view of their infant's temperament. These results on the effect of mother's anxiety and perfectionism on the child temperament perception might have treatment implications. As perfectionism is not always maladaptive, some of its positive features could be used to enhance women's self-efficacy/sense of parental competence in their role as mothers and positive affect towards their infants. Also, antenatal interventions aimed at minimising anxiety could help to optimise infant temperament outcomes, which could, eventually, also, lead to subsequent maternal and infant mental health better outcomes.     

Editorial

Fatigue is among the most common and disabling symptoms in multiple sclerosis (MS). However, the relationship of perfectionism to fatigue in MS patients remains poorly understood. One hundred and twenty MS patients (79 women, 41 men) were compared with 120 healthy individuals (79 women, 41 men) to explore whether differences exist between the two groups with respect to perfectionistic characteristics and to investigate whether dimensions of positive and negative perfectionism are related to the symptomatology of fatigue. All participants were asked to complete the positive and negative perfectionism scale (PANPS), the modified fatigue impact scale (MFIS), the fatigue severity scale (FSS) and the Beck depression inventory (BDI). The results revealed that the MS group reported lower levels of positive perfectionism and higher levels of negative perfectionism as well as depressive symptoms than the control group. Perfectionism was also significantly related to fatigue symptoms in both groups. These findings suggest that the fatigue symptoms are strongly associated with perfectionistic characteristics. The negative (maladaptive) dimension of perfectionism may play a predisposing role in the development and/or perpetuation of fatigue in MS patients. The findings are discussed within the scope of current literature and implications for clinical applications are suggested.     

Multidimensional Perfectionism and Ruminative Brooding in Current Dysphoria,Anxiety, Worry,and Anger

The current study examined links between dimensions of perfectionism, ruminative and distractive coping, and multiple measures of current distress (dysphoria, anxiety, worry, and anger) in 205 university students. A main goal was to test the hypothesis that perfectionism is related to a new measure of the critical maladaptive component of rumination (i.e., ruminative brooding) that is not confounded with symptoms and confirm that both constructs function as non-specific vulnerabilities for emotional distress. Our study revealed numerous significant findings, including: (1) socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) was the dimension most strongly related to brooding in response to depression and anxiety; (2) SPP, self-oriented perfectionism (SOP), and brooding predicted various indices of distress; (3) SOP predicted anxiety and worry in women, and it predicted dysphoria and anger in men; (4) despite the strong associations between ruminative brooding and distress, perfectionism still accounted for unique variance in distress, and vice-versa. Implications for the issue of the adaptiveness versus maladaptiveness of perfectionism and for counseling perfectionists who fall into the “brooding trap” are discussed.

Self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism dimensions and their associations with disordered eating

This study examined the relationship between self-oriented and socially prescribed dimensions of perfectionism (using two measures of perfectionism) and disordered eating assessed across multiple time points in a sample of young women. Study participants (n=406) reported on their levels of perfectionism and on their subsequent patterns of dieting and bulimic symptoms. Self-oriented perfectionism was strongly linked to dietary restraint, whether using the theoretically derived perfectionism dimensions from the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) [Hewitt, P.L., & Flett, G.L. (1991a). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456-470] or the dimensions derived from the Perfectionism subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) [Garner, D. M., Olmsted, M. P., & Polivy, J. (1983). Development and validation of a multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2, 15-34]. A less clear-cut pattern emerged when bulimic symptoms were investigated, with both self-oriented (MPS and EDI) and socially prescribed perfectionism (MPS) being associated with bulimic symptoms. After controlling for negative affect, only a self-oriented dimension of perfectionism predicted unique variance in bulimic symptoms. What constitutes maladaptive perfectionism, concerns about using EDI-Perfectionism dimensions interchangeably with MPS dimensions, and future directions are discussed.     

Perfectionism, achievement motives, and attribution of success and failure in female soccer players

While some researchers have identified adaptive perfectionism as a key characteristic to achieving elite performance in sport, others see perfectionism as a maladaptive characteristic that undermines, rather than helps, athletic performance. Arguing that perfectionism in sport contains both adaptive and maladaptive facets, the present article presents a study of N = 74 female soccer players investigating how two facets of perfectionism-perfectionistic strivings and negative reactions to imperfection (Stoeber, Otto, Pescheck, Becker, & Stoll, 2007 )-are related to achievement motives and attributions of success and failure. Results show that striving for perfection was related to hope of success and self-serving attributions (internal attribution of success). Moreover, once overlap between the two facets of perfectionism was controlled for, striving for perfection was inversely related to fear of failure and self-depreciating attributions (internal attribution of failure). In contrast, negative reactions to imperfection were positively related to fear of failure and self-depreciating attributions (external attribution of success) and inversely related to self-serving attributions (internal attribution of success and external attribution of failure). It is concluded that striving for perfection in sport is associated with an adaptive pattern of positive motivational orientations and self-serving attributions of success and failure, which may help athletic performance. In contrast, negative reactions to imperfection are associated with a maladaptive pattern of negative motivational orientations and self-depreciating attributions, which is likely to undermine athletic performance. Consequently, perfectionism in sport may be adaptive in those athletes who strive for perfection, but can control their negative reactions when performance is less than perfect.     

Perfectionism and multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI) indices of personality disorder

The present research tested the hypothesis that personal and social aspects of the perfectionism construct are related differentially to indices of personality disorders. A sample of 90 psychiatric patients was examined with respect to their scores on the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and the personality disorder subscales (PDS) of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. The MPS provides measures of self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism, whereas the PDS assess levels of various personality disorder symptoms. Zero-order and partial correlations indicated that the perfectionism dimensions of the MPS were related to various subscales of the PDS and, perhaps more importantly, that the findings vary as a function of the perfectionism dimension in question. The results are discussed in terms of the importance of perfectionism in personality disorder symptom patterns.     

Parents' perfectionism and its relation to child rearing behaviors

The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between parents' perfectionism and self‐reported parenting behaviors. The study included 786 parents (417 mothers and 369 fathers) of high school students. Results showed that parents' positive and negative perfectionism were differently related to specific forms of child rearing practices. Namely, positive perfectionism was positively, while negative perfectionism was negatively related to parental acceptance for both mothers and fathers. Mothers' and fathers' negative perfectionism was positively related to parental criticism and permissiveness. In addition, fathers' positive perfectionism was negatively associated with permissive child rearing practices. After controlling for background variables, parents' positive and negative perfectionism explained significant amounts of variance in all self‐reported parenting dimensions for fathers and significantly accounted for the variance of parental acceptance and criticism for mothers. According to our findings, parents' perfectionism might have an important role in shaping parenting behaviors.     

大学生完美主义、自尊与学业拖延的关系

采用问卷法调查了311名大学生学业拖延与完美主义和自尊的关系,特别考察了自尊在完美主义与学业拖延关系间的中介作用。研究结果表明:(1) 学业拖延与消极完美主义显著正相关,与积极完美主义显著负相关,与自尊显著负相关;自尊与消极完美主义显著负相关,与积极完美主义显著正相关。(2) 消极完美主义显著正向预测学业拖延,积极完美主义和自尊显著负向预测学业拖延。(3) 自尊在积极、消极完美主义与学业拖延关系间起部分中介作用。     

Perfectionism and eating disturbances in Korean immigrants: Moderating effects of acculturation and ethnic identity

Korean society highly values personal appearance. Given the established links between perfectionism and eating disorders in Western countries, the present project investigated such links and the extent to which these were moderated by the acculturation patterns of the participants. Korean immigrants to New Zealand (N = 123) completed measures of perfectionism, ethnic identity, eating disorders, and social desirability. Positive and negative perfectionism were associated with eating‐disorder symptoms. For males, but not females, negative perfectionism was more strongly associated with increased body satisfaction only among those who identified strongly as Korean.     

Perfectionism: A contributor to social anxiety and its cognitive processes

The present study aimed to examine how perfectionism is contributing to social anxiety and its cognitive processes of post‐event rumination and self‐perception of performance following a speech task. Forty‐eight undergraduate students completed measures of perfectionism and trait social anxiety prior to performing a 3‐min impromptu speech task. Immediately following the speech task, participants rated their state anxiety and self‐perception of performance, and 24 hr later, their level of post‐event rumination was measured. Structural equation modelling revealed that perfectionism, in the form of socially prescribed perfectionism and doubts about actions, directly influences trait social anxiety, and indirectly influences post‐event rumination and self‐perception of performance through its relationship with trait social anxiety and state anxiety. This is the first study to investigate how perfectionism is contributing to social anxiety and its cognitive processes. The findings of this study provide evidence in support of the potential predictive role of perfectionism in social anxiety.