Trait personality and state variability: Predicting individual differences in within- and cross-context fluctuations in affect,self-evaluations,and behavior in everyday life

Prior research on the effects of personality on the variability of states has either not assessed states in real-life contexts or not incorporated meaningful contextual information when analyzing state variability. Providing an integrated contextualized approach, we introduce the Within and Across Context (WAC) Variability framework that disentangles real-life within-person fluctuations occurring within and across real-life contexts. To illustrate the utility of this framework, we investigated effects of Big Five personality traits on the level and the within- and cross-context variability of experience-sampled states (affect, self-esteem, behavior) of psychology freshmen (N = 118). Results provide initial empirical support for the meaningful separation of within- and cross-context variability and their distinct relations to personality.     

The relation of self-esteem variability to emotion variability, mood, personality traits, and depressive tendencies

The relation of self-esteem variability to personality, mood, and behavior was investigated. Self-esteem variability was measured by calculating the standard deviation of self-ratings made during a week of experience-sampling. Participants high in self-esteem variability were self-conscious, socially anxious, and avoidant of social contexts. Self-esteem variability was partially independent of the conceptually similar trait of affect-intensity. The contributions of the study to work on self-esteem stability are discussed.     

Assessing within-person personality variability via frequency estimation: More evidence for a new measurement approach

Variability in personality has been recognized in recent years as an important aspect of personality both conceptually and empirically. A relatively new and efficient method of obtaining variability information is frequency-based personality assessment (Edwards & Woehr, 2007). The purpose of the present research is to further examine the viability of frequency-based personality measurement as an alternative to traditional (Likert-type) measurement and to assess the usefulness of the variance-based parameters. Toward this end, three studies are presented. Specifically, Study 1 examined relationships between a frequency-based measure of the Big Five personality traits and several motivational variables. Study 2 examined the moderating role of temporal consistency information (provided by frequency-based measurement) on relationships between personality and peer ratings of task performance. Study 3 compared the frequency-based measure to a Likert-type measure with respect to each measure’s susceptibility to deliberate response distortion. Results indicated that consistency information increases the predictive validity of agreeableness and conscientiousness and that a frequency-based format is less susceptible to faking than a Likert-type format for conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience.     

Transformational leadership: relations to the five-factor model and team performance in typical and maximum contexts

This study examined the 5-factor model of personality, transformational leadership, and team performance under conditions similar to typical and maximum performance contexts. Data were collected from 39 combat teams from an Asian military sample (N = 276). Results found that neuroticism and agreeableness were negatively related to transformational leadership ratings. Team performance ratings correlated at only.18 across the typical and maximum contexts. Furthermore, transformational leadership related more strongly to team performance in the maximum rather than the typical context. Finally, transformational leadership fully mediated the relationship between leader personality and team performance in the maximum context but only partially mediated the relationship between leader personality and team performance in the typical context. The Discussion section focuses on how these findings, although interesting, need to be replicated with different designs, contexts, and measures.     

The effect of state core self-evaluations on task performance,organizational citizenship behaviour,and counterproductive work behaviour

Although the personality–performance relationship has been studied extensively, most studies focused on the relationship between between-person differences in the Big Five personality dimensions and between-person differences in job performance. The current paper extends this research in two ways. First, we build on core self-evaluations (CSEs): an alternative, broad personality dimension that has proven to be a good predictor of job performance. Second, we tested concurrent and lagged within-person relationships between CSEs and task performance, organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB), and counterproductive work behaviour (CWB). To this end, we conducted two experience sampling studies; the first one assessing the relationship between state CSEs and levels of momentary task performance and OCB, and a second study in which employees reported on their level of state CSEs and momentary CWB. Results showed that there is substantial within-person variability in CSEs and that these within-person fluctuations relate to within-person variation in task performance, OCB, and CWB towards the organization, and CWB towards the individual. Moreover, CSEs prospectively predicted within-person differences in task performance and CWB towards the organization, whereas the reversed effect did not hold. These findings tentatively suggest that state CSEs predict performance, rather than the other way around.     

Personality Factors and the Short-Term Variability in Subjective Well-Being

The present study used a sample of 60 college students and an intensive longitudinal approach to investigate the variability in subjective well-being (SWB). At the beginning of the semester students provided information related to their personalities, while throughout the semester they provided SWB data on a weekly basis. Considerable between-student and within-student variability in SWB was found. Multiple regression analyses revealed that personality-based models were useful in explaining the variability in SWB. Conscientiousness and the Chance component of locus of control were found to be statistically significant independent personality predictors of variability in SWB. Specifically, students high in conscientiousness and high in external locus of control experienced more variability in SWB over the study period.     

The Contributions of Personality to Organizational Behavior and Psychology: Findings,Criticisms, and Future Research Directions

Skepticism regarding the importance of personality traits as predictors of organizational behavior criteria has given way to an appreciation of the broad array of work outcomes predicted by personality. This article considers the effects of the five‐factor model (‘Big Five’) personality traits on the following work outcomes: (1) job performance; (2) work motivation; (3) job attitudes; (4) leadership; (5) power, politics, and influence; (6) stress, adaptability, and coping; (7) team effectiveness; (8) counterproductive/deviant workplace behaviors; (9) workplace accidents; and (10) conflict and negotiation. Two contemporary criticisms of personality research in organizational behavior – that the validities are small and that faking undermines the usefulness of personality inventories in employment contexts – are then evaluated. Finally, a brief agenda for future research is provided which highlights needed areas of advancement.     

Predicting Performance with Contextualized Inventories,No Frame‐of‐reference Effect?

A recent meta‐analysis showed that contextualized personality inventories have incremental predictive validity over generic personality inventories when predicting job performance. This study aimed to investigate the differences between two types of contextualization of items: Adding an ‘at work’ tag versus completely modifying items. One hundred thirty‐nine pharmacy assistants from 29 pharmacies filled out a generic, a tagged, and a completely modified personality inventory. The assistants also provided participant reactions for each of the personality inventories. Performance ratings were collected from the supervising pharmacists. We expected to find incremental criterion validity for both the tagged inventory and the completely modified inventory for predicting job performance. However, the results showed an unexpected decrease in predictive validity for the contextualized inventories. Contextualized inventories were liked less than the generic inventory, but were considered somewhat more face valid and predictive by the participants.     

Work experiences and personality development in young adulthood

This longitudinal study provides an analysis of the relationship between personality traits and work experiences with a special focus on the relationship between changes in personality and work experiences in young adulthood. Longitudinal analyses uncovered 3 findings. First, measures of personality taken at age 18 predicted both objective and subjective work experiences at age 26. Second, work experiences were related to changes in personality traits from age 18 to 26. Third, the predictive and change relations between personality traits and work experiences were corresponsive: Traits that "selected" people into specific work experiences were the same traits that changed in response to those same work experiences. The relevance of the findings to theories of personality development is discussed.     

Job-specific applicant pools and national norms for personality scales: implications for range-restriction corrections in validation research

This article compares variability in national norms to variability in job-specific applicant pools for personality scales. Across 23,231 job applicants for 111 jobs, we found that job-specific applicant pools were slightly less variable than broad normative data (by about 4%) based on a national norm sample of 40,474 job applicants. For some personality variables, the amount of variability reduction correlated with work characteristics as captured by the Data, People and Things scales of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (US Department of Labor, 1977). Most correlations were small in magnitude. In general, the small reductions in job-specific applicant pool variability provide evidence that researchers' decisions to use manual norm group standard deviations in range restriction corrections has not appreciably inflated the personality-criterion relationships studied. Implications for attraction and gravitation to jobs are discussed.     

The Impact of Contextual Self‐Ratings and Observer Ratings of Personality on the Personality–Performance Relationship1

This study examined 2 possible ways of increasing the predictive validity of personality measures: using observer (i.e., supervisor and coworker) ratings and work‐specific self‐ratings of Big Five personality factors. Results indicated that among general self‐ratings of Big Five personality dimensions, Conscientiousness was the best predictor of in‐role performance, and Agreeableness and Emotional Stability were the best predictors of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Observer ratings of personality accounted for incremental variance in job performance (in‐role performance and OCB) beyond that accounted for by general self‐ratings. However, contrary to our expectations, work‐specific (i.e., contextual) self‐ratings of personality generally did not account for incremental variance in job performance beyond that accounted for by general self‐ratings.     

Five-factor personality domains and job performance: A second order meta-analysis

Several meta-analyses have investigated the job-related validities of the traits associated with the Five-Factor Model (FFM). The presence of second-order sampling error, however, might complicate the interpretation of these meta-analyses (i.e., random error across different meta-analyses). The current paper therefore evaluates variability across different meta-analyses and tests for key moderators (i.e., performance criteria, sources of ratings, and context). Results suggested that the variation in the predictive validity of several FFM traits and facets across multiple performance criteria was attributable to second-order sampling error. However, true variation existed for some moderators such as sources of personality information (self-reports versus informant reports). The current analyses therefore enhance knowledge about the usefulness and generalizability of personality traits in work contexts.     

Self-reported personality variability across the social network is associated with interpersonal dysfunction

We describe 2 studies (n=52 and n=82) examining variability in perceptions of personality using a social network methodology. Undergraduate participants completed self-report measures of personality and interpersonal dysfunction and then subsequently reported on their personalities with each of 30 members of their social networks. Results across the 2 studies found substantial variability in participants' perceived personalities within their social networks. Measures of interpersonal dysfunction were associated with the amount of variability in dyadic ratings of personality, specifically Agreeableness and Openness to Experience. Results suggest that personality variability across interpersonal contexts may be an important individual difference related to social behavior and dysfunction.     

Impression management and overclaiming on job applications: Related to future sales performance?

Despite decades of research on the role of socially desirable responding (SDR) in hiring contexts, it remains unclear whether job applicant SDR is related to future employee performance. Drawing on a large sample of 1,084 retail sales employees and their original job application data, this study examined the predictive validity of two operationalizations of SDR: (a) impression management captured using a personality scale and (b) overclaiming familiarity with a list of products that were directly relevant to the job. Neither measure was used to inform the hiring decisions. Results showed that job applicant impression management and overclaiming were unrelated to four indicators of future sales performance as employees. Implications for organizational selection policies involving applicant SDR are discussed.     

Predictive Criterion-Related Validity of Observer Ratings of Personality and Job-Related Competencies Using Multiple Raters and Multiple Performance Criteria

The purpose of this study was to assess the predictive validity of observer ratings of personality and job-related competencies in a selection setting. Based on ratings from multiple raters of both the predictors and the criteria in a sample of MBA students, results indicated that observer ratings of Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, leadership, and interpersonal skills predicted work performance, team performance, and academic performance. For work performance and team performance, a composite of the four predictors had incremental predictive validity over general mental ability, even after controlling for how well the rater knew the ratee.     

Virtual personalities: Using computational modeling to understand within-person variability

How can the same underlying psychological/neurobiological system result in both stable between-individual differences and high levels of within-individual variability in personality states over time and situations? We argue that both types of variability result from a psychological system based on structured, chronic motivations, where behavior at a specific point in time is a joint function of the current availability of motive affordances in the situation, current motivationally relevant bodily or interoceptive states, and the result of the competition among alternative active motives. Here we present a biologically-based theoretical framework, embodied in two different computational models, that shows how individuals with stable personality characteristics, can nevertheless exhibit considerable within-person variability in personality states across time and situations.     

Beyond Traits in the Study of Personality Coherence

People exhibit coherent patterns of experience and action that cannot be fully described or explained by personality trait models. Rather, personality coherence is expressed in dispositional tendencies that violate the structure of common trait categories. Across contexts, people display predictable patterns of behavioral variation that cannot be captured by trait constructs, which correspond to mean levels of response. In addition to these empirical findings, theoretical work in both psychology and philosophy challenges the conceptual strategies through which trait models explain personality coherence. These empirical and theoretical points can be addressed by alternative theoretical models that specify how underlying psychological systems give rise to both common and idiosyncratic patterns of personality consistency and variability.     

The interactive effect of neuroticism and extraversion on the daily variability of affective states

The interaction between neuroticism and extraversion is thought to predict affective variability. In this study, neuroticism and extraversion were assessed with questionnaires, and affects were measured by experience sampling, with five daily assessments over 2 weeks. Affective variability was studied within a three-dimensional affective space whose three axes were oriented along the main affective dimensions: positive affect, negative affect, and activation. Quantile regression mixed-effects models allowed predicting zones in which affective states were most likely to occur according to personality. Beyond the well-known effect of personality on affect level, high neuroticism and/or high extraversion were accompanied by heightened affective variability. Results were interpreted as potentially reflecting positive feedback loops oriented toward negative affect for neuroticism, and toward positive affect and activation for extraversion.     

Mastery approach and performance approach: the differential prediction of organizational citizenship behavior and workplace deviance,beyond HEXACO personality

Goal orientation has become one of the most studied motivational constructs in the psychology literature. However, in organizational contexts, the research focus to date has largely centered on the relationship between goal orientation and task performance—neglecting the valuable contribution of non-task work behaviors, such as workplace deviance and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) to organization functioning. In this paper, we addressed this gap in the literature by investigating the differential prediction of performance approach and mastery approach goal orientation on workplace deviance and OCB, beyond personality correlates. We hypothesize that performance approach orientation is positively associated with workplace deviance and mastery approach orientation is positively associated with OCB. A sample of employed participants (n = 114) provided self-reports of goal orientation, workplace deviance, OCB and personality. Additionally, participants nominated a well-acquainted peer to provide peer-reports of their personalities. When controlling for personality, performance approach orientation positively predicted workplace deviance whereas mastery approach orientation positively predicted organizational citizenship behavior. This study is the first to our knowledge to explore the relationships between goal orientation and non-task work behaviors and to show that goal orientation adds to the understanding of workplace deviance and OCB, beyond personality. Practical implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

Explaining intra-individual variability in social behavior through idiographic assessment: The case of humor

Much variability in social behavior is intra-individual; people vary their actions strategically across contexts. Yet most personality assessment methods are inter-individual; they chart between-person differences in average behavioral tendencies. The present research advanced novel idiographic assessment methods to predict intra-individual variability in a behavioral domain of long-standing interest to personality psychologists: humor. Individuals participated in three assessment sessions. Personal beliefs about reasons for using humor were assessed either idiographically or with respect to a nomothetic system of humor-related reasons for action. The subjective relevance of nomothetically- and idiographically-identified reasons to everyday social situations was assessed. Subsequently, participants reported their perceived likelihood of using humor in specific social contexts. As predicted, likelihood of humor use varied substantially as a function of the relevance of situations to idiographically-identified reasons, but did not vary as a function of the relevance of situations to reasons identified nomothetically. Implications for personality and assessment are discussed.