THE ACQUISITION OF CONSERVATION OF SUBSTANCE AND WEIGHT IN CHILDREN

Smedslund, J. The acquisition of conservation of substance and weight in children. VII. Conservation of discontinuous quantity and the operations of adding and taking away. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1962, 3 , 69–77.—In Exp. I a test of conservation and highly different items of addition and subtraction were given. Conservation was closely related only to an item involving a subtraction of a piece and a subsequent addition of the same piece (- + sequence), followed by an addition of a piece and the subsequent subtraction of the same piece (+ - sequence). In Exp. II a test of conservation was given together with items involving various combinations of simple - + and + - sequences. It is concluded that - +, + -, and conservation seem to form a genetic sequence in this order, thus strengthening the hypothesis that a concept of conservation reflects a complete reversibility of the operations of + and -.     

THE ACQUISITION OF CONSERVATION OF SUBSTANCE AND WEIGHT IN CHILDREN

S medslund , J. The acquisition of conservation of substance and weight in children. I. Introduction. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1961, 2 , 11–20.—This is the first in a series of articles concerning the problem of how children acquire the concepts of conservation of substance and weight. The four alternative interpretations of nativism, maturation theory, learning theory and equilibration theory are discussed. It is concluded that nativism and maturation theory do not account for the known facts. An important issue is whether the concepts are established by external reinforcement (learning theory) or by a process of inner equilibration, as maintained by Piaget.     

EFFECTS OF CHRONIC REDUCTIONS IN BRAIN CHOLINESTERASE ACTIVITY ON ACQUISITION AND EXTINCTION OF A CONDITIONED AVOIDANCE RESPONSE

R ussell , R. W., W atson , R. H. J., and F rankenhaeuser , M. Effects of chronic reductions in brain cholinesterase activity on acquisition and extinction of a conditioned avoidance response. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1961, 2 , 21–29.—Significant effects of five different levels of reduction in brain ChE activity in the white rat were found during the extinction, but not during the acquisition, of a conditioned avoidance response. The reductions were produced and chronically maintained throughout the experiment by administration of an organo-phosphorous anticholinesterase. (1) Reduced brain ChE activity was associated with differential effects on the behavior, i.e., speed of conditioning was not altered significantly, whereas speed of extinction was so affected. (2) There appears to be a 'critical level' between 60 and 65 per cent reduction of normal ChE activity below which extinction was significantly affected.     

FACILITATION OF CHROMATIC CONE ACTIVITY BY ROD ACTIVITY

STABELL, U. & STABELL, B. Facilitation of chromatic cone activity by rod activity. II. Variation of chromatic-related cone activity. Scand. J. Psychol. , 1971, 12, 168–174.–At the cone-rod break of the dark adaptation curve, the specific threshold was found to drop to lower intensity levels, while the threshold curves of fovea proceeded in one step only, confirming the suggestion that rods may facilitate chromatic-related cone activity.     

NEUROCHEMICAL AND ENDOCRINOLOGICAL STUDIES OF MICE SELECTIVELY BRED FOR AGGRESSIVENESS

L agerspetz , K. Y. H., T irri , R. & L agerspetz , K. M. J. Neurochemical and endocrinological studies of mice selectively bred for aggressiveness. Scand.J. Psychol ., 1968, g, 157–160.—Several neurochemical and endocrinological variables were studied in male albino mice from two strains, selectively bred for aggressiveness and non-aggressiveness. Differences were found in the weight and the serotonin content of the forebrain, in the catecholamine contents of the brain stem and of the adrenal gland as well as in the weight of the testis. The results indicate that mice selectively bred for aggressiveness show physiological signs of higher orthosympathetic activity than the mice selectively bred for non-aggressiveness.     

GENERALITY OF GRAPHIC VARIABLES ACROSS DRAWING TASKS

K onttinen , R. & O lkinuora , E. Generality of graphic variables across drawing tasks. Scund. J. Psychol ., 1968, 9, 161–168.—As a partial replication of the Takala & Rantanen (1964) study, the correlations between 6 graphic variables extracted from 6 drawing tasks differing in complexity were investigated. Four graphic trait factors were obtained I Size, II Pressure, III Discontinuous lines, and IV Angularity. Other graphic variables (nuancity and reinforcement) loaded factors II and III. The data lend support to the hypothesis that the same graphic traits should be interpreted in the same way irrespective of the complexity of the test. However, the complexity of the drawing task may make a difference in interpretation where size is concerned.     

INTERINDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SIMILARITY ESTIMATES OF PAINTINGS

KÜNNAPAS, T. & NORMAN, M. Intel-individual differences in similarity estimates of paintings. Scand. J. Psychol. , 1971, 12, 161–167.–Nine paintings by Cézanne were studied by the method of multidimensional similarity analysis. Three different groups of painters, students, and art school pupils participated in three experiments. Three factors were found: Factor I is called 'Complex horizontally arranged motive'; Factor II, 'Vertical central figure'; and Factor III, 'Central figure without background'. Comparison of different groups showed (1) that for paintings with the greatest loading in one of these factors no differences were obtained, (2) that differences between the groups are smallest in Factor I and greatest in Factor III, (3) that differences between the painters and students are greater than those between the painters and pupils, or between the pupils and the students, and (4) that interindividual differences between the groups are due, at least partly, to the formal artistic aspect which is most dominant in painters, in lower degree in pupils, and very little in students.     

Books received

Art therapy
Murphy, J. (ed.). Art Therapy with Young Survivors of Sexual Abuse – Lost for Words.
Autobiography
Sandison, Ronald. A Century of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Group Analysis – A Search for Integration.
Philosophy
Avramides, Anita. Other Minds.
Neuropsychiatry
Feinberg, Todd E. Altered Egos – How the Brain Creates the Self.     

FEEDFORWARD AND FEEDBACK AS DETERMINERS OF KNOWLEDGE AND POLICY: NOTES ON A NEGLECTED ISSUE

B jörkman M. Feedforward and feedback as determiners of knowledge and policy: notes on a neglected issue. Scand. J. Psychol . 1972, 13 , 152–158.—Studies of cognitive learning should distinguish between acquisition of knowledge and policy formation. Two learning operators, feedforward, that is, task information by instructions, and feedback must also be taken into account. This double aim requires experimenters to analyze and relate two sets of data: subjective estimates about the task learned and predictions of outcomes. A broader approach is thus needed with a focus on how policy is related to knowledge, how these processes depend on feedback and feedfonvard and how the latter two interact in producing knowledge and policy.     

AMULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING APPROACH TO THE PERCEPTION OF ART. II

G oude G. A multidimensional scaling approach to the perception of art. II. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1972, 13 , 272–284.—Three series of experiments with multidimensional scaling of art experiences (of eight paintings) were performed. In the first series groups which had followed lectures in art history were compared to otherwise similar groups without lecturing within this field. The second study compared four age-groups (8, 10, 12 and 14 years). The third series was a comparative study with a group of schizophrenic patients.     

Interference Effects in the Conservation of Weight

On the assumption that the ability to overcome the effects of interference between the physical properties of an object is a basic component in the acquisition of conservation, we hypothesized that children would tend to negate conservation not only when the form of an object is altered but also when, without deforming the object, one of its properties (e.g., color or temperature) is altered; when variations (e.g., movement or orientation) are introduced into the concrete situation in which weight is exerted; or when other spatial properties (e.g., volume or surface) are made to interact with weight. The results indicate that children up to 8 years of age may have difficulty accepting the conservation of weight even when a transformation does not deform the object and that children up to 13 years may accept the conservation of weight but may find it difficult to explain why an object appears heavier in those instances where weight has to be coordinated with another spatial property. The theoretical implications of these results are discussed.     

Interference effects in the conservation of weight

On the assumption that the ability to overcome the effects of interference between the physical properties of an object is a basic component in the acquisition of conservation, we hypothesized that children would tend to negate conservation not only when the form of an object is altered but also when, without deforming the object, one of its properties (e.g., color or temperature) is altered; when variations (e.g., movement or orientation) are introduced into the concrete situation in which weight is exerted; or when other spatial properties (e.g., volume or surface) are made to interact with weight. The results indicate that children up to 8 years of age may have difficulty accepting the conservation of weight even when a transformation does not deform the object and that children up to 13 years may accept the conservation of weight but may find it difficult to explain why an object appears heavier in those instances where weight has to be coordinated with another spatial property. The theoretical implications of these results are discussed.     

THE EFFECTS OF TRAINING IN CRAWLING ON THE MOTOR AND MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS

LAGERSPETZ, K., NYGÅHD, M. & STRANDVIK, C. The effects of training in crawling on the motor and mental development of infants. Scand. J. Psychol. , 1971 12, 192–197.–Eleven infants under the age of 1 year were trained in creeping for 15 minutes daily for 3 weeks, while 11 children, who served as controls, spent the corresponding times with the experimenters without training. The experimental group learned to creep significantly earlier, and transfer effects on other locomotor development were observed. Even effects on factors other than motor developmental were obtained. A training experiment with a pair of monozygotic twins is also reported.     

DURATION OF SCOTOPIC CONTRAST HUES

STABELL, U. & STABELL, B. Duration of scotopic contrast hues. Scand. J. Psychol. , 1971, 12, 106–112.–It is generally accepted that following intense and prolonged bleaching, regeneration of cone pigments in man takes a few minutes to reach completion. The results show that the scotopic hue may remain visible for more than one hour. Hence, it is suggested that light signals and not bleaching signals produce the scotopic contrast hues.     

THE PROBLEM OF MAGNITUDE AND CATEGORY SCALES: INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

J unge , K. The problem of magnitude and category scales: interpretation of results. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1962, 3 , 215–218.—It is proposed that three main factors are responsible for the relation between magnitude and category scales: (1) ratio judgments on a transformed category scale, (2) interval judgments, and (3) hybrid judgments. The last term refers to the tentative explanation that magnitude judgments are a cross between pure ratio and interval judgments.     

THE VALUE OF EXTERNAL DIRECTION AND INDIVIDUAL DISCOVERY IN LEARNING SITUATIONS: The learning of a fwen alphabet

W erdelin , I. The value of external direction and individual discovery in learning situations. II. The learning of a foreign alphabet. Scand J. Psychol ., 1968, 9, 248–251.—Three samples (A, B, C), selected at random from seven eighth grade classes and matched with respect to scholastic achievement, line of study, and sex, were taught a foreign alphabet differently. A was told the principles of the alphabet and applied it on examples; B was given most examples first, then told the principles, and given additional examples; C was given the examples only. There was a clear tendency that A learned the principles best as measured by the ability to apply them immediately but C was comparatively better on tests which measured retention and transfer.     

DIMENSION ANALYSIS OF THE PERCEPTION OF MUSICAL STYLE

W edin , L. Dimension analysis of the perception of musical style. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1969, 10, 9 7–108.-The subjective similarity of ten short excerpts from musical works ranging over the period of 1720–1890 was studied by (I) the direct multidimensional ratio scaling method and (2) by the method of similarity analysis. Factor analysis extracted three or four factors depending on the degree of musical training of the subjects. The differentiation and inter-pretability of the factors were higher for subjects with more musical training and interest. The factors were labeled 'Baroque', 'Rococo', 'Viennese classicism' and 'Romanticism'.     

PATTERNS OF EXPERIENCE AND THE ACQUISITION OF CONSERVATION OF LENGTH

The effects of five procedures on the acquisition of conservation of length were studied. A Müller-Lyer illusion was used to induce apparent changes in length in the test- and practice-situations. Two procedures involved practice on addition-subtraction, one a progressive increase in the strength of the Müller-Lyer illusion, and one the anticipation of the outcome of displacements of the objects. A fifth procedure was a composite of the other four. The results showed some acquisitions in all groups, with highest frequency in the anticipation group, and lowest in the increase-in-illusion group.     

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS TO INFUSIONS OF A MIXTURE OF ADRENALINE AND NORADRENALINE

F rankenhaeuser , M. & J ärpe , G. Psychophysiological reactions to infusions of a mixture of adrenaline and noradrenaline. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1962, 3 , 21–29.—Psychophysiological reactions to a mixture of adrenaline and noradrenaline (average dose 6.99 + 6.99 μg/min.) given as a continuous intravenous drip for periods of about 40 min. were studied in 11 subjects. Control data were obtained from placebo infusions. The catecholamine infusions produced marked subjective and overt symptoms as well as changes in heart rate and blood pressure. These reactions were—on the whole—similar to those produced by infusions of adrenaline only. Time experience was also affected by the catecholamines in that more was retained of the previously perceived time intervals.