Self-Talk in the Swimming Pool: The Effects of Self-Talk on Thought Content and Performance on Water-Polo Tasks

The present study examined the effect of instructional and motivational self-talk on the occurrence of interfering thoughts and performance on two water-polo tasks with similar characteristics performed in the same environment. Two experiments were conducted in the swimming pool, one involving a precision task (throwing a ball at target) and one involving a power task (throwing a ball for distance). In the first experiment (precision task), both self-talk groups improved their performance in comparison to the baseline measure, with participants using instructional self-talk improving more. In the second experiment (power task), only the motivational self-talk group improved its performance significantly. In both experiments the occurrence of interfering thoughts declined for both groups. The results of the study provide further support for the effectiveness of self-talk and give preliminary evidence regarding likely mechanisms through which self-talk influence performance, that is through indications that self-talk reduces thoughts not related to task execution, thus enhancing concentration to the task.     

It's Good But it's Not Right: Instructional Self-Talk and Skilled Performance

This research examined the relative effectiveness of instructional versus motivational self-talk for skilled athletes. Forty Gaelic footballers completed a shooting accuracy task with their dominant and nondominant feet. Results indicated significantly more accurate performance when executing the task using the dominant foot and motivational as compared to instructional self-talk. No difference emerged between the two types of self-talk within the nondominant foot condition. Results challenge the widely held view that instructional self-talk is most effective for accuracy-based tasks and should prompt practitioners to consider the skill level of their clients when constructing self-talk interventions.     

The use of self-talk during elite cricket batting performance

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to qualitatively investigate the use of self-talk during cricket batting performance through an innovative approach that allowed for within performance responses to be examined.Design and methodFive elite cricketers were interviewed alongside edited video footage of their batting innings. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to gather in-depth information and explanations about the participants' use of self-talk during each critical incident.Results and conclusionsThe findings of this study highlighted the use of instructional and motivational self-talk as a fluctuating continual narrative that enhanced skill execution, self-efficacy and focus of attention, whilst reducing performance anxiety. In particular, the athletes described the effectiveness of self-determined self-talk on their performance. Specifically, they advocated self-talk that narrowed their attentional focus and redirected their thoughts to performance-related cues during periods of declining performance.     

Mechanisms underlying the self-talk–performance relationship: The effects of motivational self-talk on self-confidence and anxiety

ObjectivesThe present study examined the effects of motivational self-talk on self-confidence, anxiety, and task performance in young athletes.MethodsParticipants were 72 tennis players. The experiment was conducted in five sessions: baseline assessment, three training sessions, and final assessment. After the baseline assessment participants were divided and assigned randomly into experimental and control groups. The two groups followed the same training program with the experimental group practicing the use of self-talk. In the last session, the final assessment took place. A forehand drive test was used to evaluate task performance, and the Competitive Anxiety Inventory-2R was used to assess self-confidence and anxiety.ResultsA two-way mixed model MANOVA revealed that task performance improved for the experimental group (p < .01) and remained stable for the control group; self-confidence increased (p < .01) and cognitive anxiety decreased (p < .05) for the experimental group, whereas no changes were observed for the control group. Correlation analysis revealed that changes in task performance were moderately related to changes in self-confidence (p < .05).ConclusionsThe results of the study showed that self-talk can enhance self-confidence and reduce cognitive anxiety. Furthermore, it is suggested that increases in self-confidence can be regarded as a viable function explaining the facilitating effects of self-talk on performance.     

The Relationships Between Athletes’ Perceptions of Coach-Created Motivational Climate,Self-Talk,and Self-Efficacy in Youth Soccer

The purpose of this study was to explore the mediating role of self-talk in the relationship between athletes’ perceptions of coach-created motivational climate and athletes’ self-efficacy. Two hundred eighty-nine youth soccer players (M = 11.63 years, SD = 1.55 years) completed the Automatic Self-Talk Questionnaire for Sport, the Empowering and Disempowering Motivational Climate Questionnaire, and a self-efficacy measure for soccer. The results showed that only positive and not negative self-talk mediated the relationship between empowering motivational climate and self-efficacy, whereas no relationship emerged between disempowering climate and self-efficacy, highlighting the role of self-talk explaining this relationship.     

Effects of dynamic and isometric motor practice on position control,force control and corticomuscular coherence in preadolescent children

In this study, we investigated the effects of motor practice with an emphasis on either position or force control on motor performance, motor accuracy and variability in preadolescent children. Furthermore, we investigated corticomuscular coherence and potential changes following motor practice.We designed a setup allowing discrete wrist flexions of the non-dominant hand and tested motor accuracy and variability when the task was to generate specific movement endpoints (15–75 deg) or force levels (5–25% MVC). All participants were tested in both tasks at baseline and post motor practice without augmented feedback on performance. Following baseline assessment, participants (44 children aged 9–11 years) were randomly assigned to either position (PC) or force control (FC) motor practice or a resting control group (CON). The PC and FC groups performed four blocks of 40 trials motor practice with augmented feedback on performance.Following practice, improvements in movement accuracy were significantly greater in the PC group compared to the FC and CON groups (p < 0.001). None of the groups displayed changes in force task performance indicating no benefits of force control motor practice and low transfer between tasks (p-values:0.08–0.45). Corticomuscular coherence (C4-FCR) was demonstrated during the hold phase in both tasks with no difference between tasks. Corticomuscular coherence did not change from baseline to post practice in any group. Our findings demonstrate that preadolescent children improve position control following dynamic accuracy motor practice. Contrary to previous findings in adults, preadolescent children displayed smaller or no improvements in force control following isometric motor practice, low transfer between tasks and no changes in corticomuscular coherence.     

Positive social-comparative feedback enhances motor learning in children

ObjectivesThe present study investigated the influence of social-comparative feedback on the learning of a throwing task in 10-year-old children.DesignTwo-group experimental design, including a practice phase and retention test.MethodBoth groups of participants, a positive social-comparative feedback and a control group, received veridical feedback about their performance (accuracy score) after each practice trial. In addition, after each block of 10 trials, the positive feedback group was given bogus feedback suggesting that their own performance was better than that of a peer group's on that block. One day after the practice phase, a retention test without (veridical or social-comparative) feedback was performed to assess learning effects as a function of feedback.ResultsThe positive feedback group demonstrated greater throwing accuracy than the control group on the retention test. In addition, questionnaire results indicated that this group scored higher in terms of perceived competence than the control group.ConclusionsThese findings demonstrate that feedback can have an important motivational function that affects the learning of motor skills in children.     

Approach-achievement goals and motivational context on psycho-physiological functioning and performance among novice basketball players

ObjectivesDrawing from an integrated motivational model (Vansteenkiste, Lens, Elliot, Soenens, & Mouratidis, 2014), this study tested the impact of induced approach-based achievement goal states under different motivational contexts on the psycho-physiological functioning and motor task performance of novice basketball players.DesignA 3 × 2 (Goal [task-/self-/other-approach] x Context [autonomy-supportive/controlling]) repeated measures experimental design was employed.Method114 novice participants (M_age = 23.53; SD = 4.56) performed a basketball shooting task. They were subsequently randomly assigned to one of six experimental conditions before repeating this task. Physiological (heart rate [HR] and blood pressure [BP]) and psychological (stress appraisals, state anxiety, task enjoyment, perceived competence, and goal attainment) data were captured at different intervals throughout the experiment.ResultsFactorial ANOVAs revealed participants: 1) performing under a controlling motivational context reported significantly higher HR (p < .001) and systolic BP (p < .05) post-task compared to those operating within an autonomy-supportive environment, 2) induced to an other-approach goal group, recorded significantly higher diastolic BP (p < .05) than those induced to self- and task-approach goals post-task, 3) adopting a task-approach goal under controlling conditions appraised the shooting task as significantly more threatening (p < .05) than their counterparts in the task-approach autonomy-supportive condition, and finally, 4) following approach-based goals under an autonomy-supportive context significantly improved their performance (p < .001) from pre-to post-shooting task.ConclusionsOur findings provide limited support for an integrated motivational model and are discussed in relation to their unique theoretical and practical utility.     

Motivational effects of enhancing expectancies and autonomy for motor learning: An examination of the OPTIMAL theory

The OPTIMAL theory proposes that enhancing expectancies and autonomy facilitate motor performance and learning (Wulf & Lewthwaite). Present study with two experiments aimed to examine this proposition by using a modified dart throwing as motor task. In both experiments, motor learning (i.e., retention test) was enhanced by practice conditions, which enhance expectancies for future performance and support learners’ autonomy. Moreover, they led to significantly superior self-efficacy scores during all acquisition phase, retention, and transfer tests. Findings of the present study provided support for propositions of the OPTIMAL theory. Results are discussed in terms of motivational aspects of enhancing expectancies and autonomy and their role on facilitating motor learning.     

Three-dimensional model of performance anxiety: Tests of the adaptive potential of the regulatory dimension of anxiety

ObjectivesTo predict the complex anxiety-performance dynamics, Cheng and associates (Cheng, Hardy, & Markland, 2009, 2011; Cheng, Hardy, & Woodman, 2011) proposed a three-dimensional model of anxiety that highlighted the adaptive potential of anxiety, and was supported with regard to cross-cultural factorial validity and predictive validity in the context of sports performance. In particular, this anxiety model included a regulatory dimension (reflected by perceived control) in addition to the conventional intensity-oriented dimensions of cognitive and physiological anxiety.DesignTo further examine the characteristics of the hypothesized adaptive potential of the regulatory dimension of anxiety, a series of three studies were conducted to investigate the relationship mainly between the regulatory dimension and three psychological variables proposed to be related to performance and stress, namely, perfectionism, self-talk and coping strategy.MethodChinese sports participants and dancers completed self-report measures. Hierarchical multiple regression was adopted for data analysis.ResultsThe findings showed that the regulatory dimension of anxiety was positively predicted by relatively adaptive dimensions of perfectionism (personal standards) and self-talk (motivational and instructional self-talk), and positively predicted approach coping.ConclusionsOverall, these data support the hypothesized characteristics of the adaptive potential underlying the regulatory dimension of anxiety. Future research and applied implications are suggested.     

The relationship between visual attention and expertise in sports

ObjectivesGiven the prevalence of misperception and failed perception, particularly in attention-demanding team sports, surprisingly few studies have explored whether experts in team sports differ from other athletes and from non-athletes in their basic attention abilities.MethodIn this study, we examined group differences between experts in team handball (n = 40), athletes from non-team sports (n = 40), and novice athletes (n = 40) using a battery of three attention tasks: a functional field of view task, a multiple-object tracking task, and an inattentional blindness task.ResultsPerformance on the three attention tasks was largely independent, with no significant correlations among the tasks. Team sports experts showed no better performance on the basic attention tasks than did athletes from non-teams sports or novice athletes.ConclusionsThe finding that all basic attention tasks are largely independent provides preliminary support for the idea that attentional breadth, tracking performance, and inattentional blindness are distinct attentional processes. Our results demonstrate that sports expertise effects are unrelated to basic differences in attention—expertise does not appear to produce differences in basic attention and basic differences in attention do not appear to predict eventual expertise. Further experiments could focus on the ways in which more specific attentional strategies and processes contribute to sports performance.     

Searching information on the Web and Planning Fallacy: A pilot investigation of pessimistic forecasts

IntroductionAccording to Planning Fallacy, people underestimate the time required to complete a task. A review of the social, cognitive, and motivational factors that moderate Planning Fallacy suggests that variability in Web searching tasks would lead to an overestimation of retrieval time, at least when the task duration is short (about 10 minutes).ObjectiveThe goals of this pilot study are twofold: to check the accuracy of forecasts when users estimate the time required to retrieve information on the Web, and to understand users’ strategies for dealing with the Web for multipurpose documentation.MethodParticipants (n = 32) were asked how long it would take to answer four encyclopedic questions on the Web; questions were in various fields with two levels of difficulty and two types of answers (qualitative vs quantitative). We compared estimations of the time required to retrieve specific information on the Web with the actual retrieval time. Forecasts were made before and after the effective retrieval task (within-subjects design).ResultsA significant and large overestimation of the anticipated time was observed, especially for questions with a qualitative answer. The overestimation range was between 195% and 473% for mean search durations between 4.5 and 10.3 min. Task perceived difficulty was the best predictor of time anticipation (r² < 0.32). Web search self-efficacy and experience contributed slightly to the overestimation but only for easy questions.ConclusionOverestimation of the time required to complete a Web searching task (i.e. pessimistic Planning Fallacy) results from a combination of factors: short length of tasks, variability in task difficulty, and the qualitative or quantitative nature of the correct answer. Search time forecast could be used as a benchmark to improve Web usability.     

Pain and athletes: Contact sport participation and performance in pain

ObjectivesThis study examined the effect of cold pressor pain on performance in high-contact athletes, low-contact athletes and non-athletes.DesignA three-group between-subjects experimental design was used.MethodSeventy-one participants completed a motor task and a cognitive task of different complexity (easy or hard) both in pain and not in pain. The motor task involved participants throwing a tennis ball at numbered targets in the correct order. In the cognitive task, participants were required to check off the numbers one to twenty-five in the correct order from a grid of randomly ordered numbers. Task difficulty was increased by adding dummy targets (motor task) or extra numbers (cognitive task).ResultsCold pressor pain was rated as less intense by high-contact athletes during both tasks compared to low-contact athletes and non-athletes. High-contact athletes’ performance was not hampered by pain on the motor task, whereas it was in low-contact athletes and non-athletes. However, pain did not hamper performance for any group during the cognitive task. Low-contact and non-athletes did not differ from each other in their pain reports or the degree to which their performance was hampered by pain in either task.ConclusionsThis study provides evidence that adaptation to pain through participation in high-contact sports can enhance both pain tolerance generally and motor performance specifically under increases in pain. The mechanisms behind these differences warrant further exploration.     

Retroactive interference and mental practice effects on motor performance: a pilot study

This study examined the effect of similar versus dissimilar retroactive interference on the mental practice effects for performing a novel motor skill. Research has shown that mental practice of a motor task can interfere with learning and performance of the task; however, little is known about how different retroactive interference activities affect mental practice effects. 90 volunteers ages 18 to 51 years (M=26.8, SD=9.6) completed a pre-test and post-test of 10 sets of five trials of a throwing task with the non-preferred hand. In the practice phase, participants mentally practiced the throwing task and then mentally practiced a task that was similar, dissimilar, or completed an unrelated reading task. Performance for all groups improved from pre- to post-test; however, there were no differences in increases for the three groups. The findings suggest that mental practice of similar and dissimilar tasks produced no significant interference in performance.     

Proneness for exercise,cognitive and psychophysiological consequences of action observation

ObjectivesPhysical exercise has benefits that go beyond health and well-being, namely in cognitive, motor and psychophysiological areas. The discovery of a shared neural network between action observation and execution (Action-Observation Network) led us to hypothesize that watching human motor action might improve cognitive and motor aspects of performance and proneness for exercise.Design/MethodsSixty participants viewed a Motor (M) (n = 30) or a Non-Motor (NM) (n = 30) movie with strong or weak content of motoric features of human action, respectively. Performance in d2 Attention test, Fitts' Motor task, and a Proneness for Exercise Visual Analog Scale was assessed before and after movie visualization, in a cross-sectional study. Psychophysiological measures were recorded throughout the experiment.ResultsOur results demonstrate an increase in proneness for exercise, and greater improvement in attention-related cognitive aspects in the M group. The aforementioned benefits of action observation did not modulate motor performance. A mental effort deployment was associated to the decrease in heart rate variability after visualization of the NM movie. This was not conducive to attention channeling on task performance. Conversely, M movie observation seemed to be associated to a cognitive load release, affording attention deployment for the resolution of the subsequent tasks.ConclusionsIt seems that some benefits associated to physical practice can result from the mere visualization of movies with human motor action content. These are the improvement in attention-related cognitive skills associated to psychophysiological changes that support a disengagement from mental effort. Crucially, the observation of exercise behavior seems to be a key factor for exercise adherence.     

Effects of anxiety,a cognitive secondary task,and expertise on gaze behavior and performance in a far aiming task

ObjectivePrevious studies focused on investigating the separate effects of anxiety, cognitive load, and expertise on perceptual-motor performance, but the combined effects of these factors have not been studied yet. The objective of the current study was to investigate these factors in combination.DesignEleven expert dart players and nine novices performed a dart throwing task in low-anxiety (LA) and high-anxiety (HA) conditions with and without a secondary task.MethodTo manipulate anxiety the dart throwing task was performed low (LA) and high (HA) on a climbing wall with and without the secondary counting backwards task. Performance and efficiency of task execution and gaze behavior were assessed.ResultsThe anxiety manipulation evoked a decrease in dart performance, but only for the novices. Increases in mental effort and dart times and a decrease in response rate on the secondary task were observed for both groups. This shows that there were decreases in processing efficiency with anxiety. Most important, the anxiety-induced decrease in performance for the novices was accompanied by final fixations on the target that were substantially shorter and deviated off the target earlier. The dual task did not affect performance.ConclusionAnxiety affects efficiency and sometimes performance in far aiming tasks. Changes are accompanied by changes in gaze behavior, particularly the final fixation on the target. All in all, findings provide support for Attentional Control Theory as a suitable framework to explain the effects of anxiety, a cognitive secondary task, and expertise in far aiming tasks.     

Self-efficacy's influence on persistence on a physical task: Moderating effect of performance feedback ambiguity

ObjectivesThe present investigation was designed to test the predictions of a control theory based view of self-regulation on the complex effects of self-efficacy on persistence. Specifically, self-efficacy was predicted to have a positive effect on persistence given unambiguous feedback, but a weak, negative effect given ambiguous feedback. Moreover, the research was designed to replicate an influential set of studies on self-efficacy.DesignA 2 (self-efficacy: low, high) × 2 (feedback ambiguity: low, high) between-groups ANOVA was conducted to examine the interaction between self-efficacy and feedback ambiguity in two trials of an isometric hand-grip competitive endurance task.MethodParticipants (87 females and 67 males) competed on a hand-grip strength task against confederates who claimed to have overworked their hand (high manipulated self-efficacy) or to be tennis players (low manipulated self-efficacy). The competition occurred either in the presence (high feedback ambiguity) or absence (low feedback ambiguity) of a physical barrier between the individuals. Persistence was how long individuals could grip at 50% of their maximum voluntary contraction.ResultsThe interaction was significant and in the predicted direction. Self-efficacy was also found to negatively relate to self-reported effort regardless of condition.ConclusionsThe results from the current study confirm that self-efficacy can foster persistence when one is aware of one's current state of performance. However, consistent with a control theory view of self-regulation, self-efficacy was unrelated to persistence when feedback was ambiguous. The results have implications for understanding the role of self-efficacy in sports and highlight the importance of replications with extensions.     

External focus and autonomy support: Two important factors in motor learning have additive benefits

We examined whether the combination of two factors that have consistently been found to enhance motor learning – an external focus (EF) of attention and autonomy support (AS) – would produce additive benefits. Participants practiced throwing with their non-dominant arm. In a 2 × 2 design, they were or were not asked to focus externally (i.e., on the target), and were or were not given a choice (autonomy support). The latter involved choosing 2 5-trials blocks during practice on which they used their dominant arm. All four groups – EF/AS, EF, AS, and C (control) – completed a practice phase consisting of 60 trials. The distance to the target (bull’s eye) was 7.5 m. One day later, participants performed retention (same target distance) and transfer tests (8.5 m). Both external focus instructions and autonomy support enhanced retention and transfer performance. Importantly, the combination of these factors resulted in additive learning advantages. The EF/AS group showed the greatest throwing accuracy, and the EF and AS groups outperformed the C group. In addition, self-efficacy measured after practice and before retention and transfer was increased by both factors. Thus, promoting an external focus of attention and supporting learners’ need for autonomy seem to independently influence learning.     

Effects of Stroop task duration on subsequent cognitive and physical performance

The strength model of self-control purports to explain why brief cognitive response inhibition tasks impair subsequent isometric handgrip endurance. According to the model, ego depleting tasks requiring self-control resources impair performance on subsequent tasks that also require self-control resources. However, several lines of evidence challenge this model, including evidence of improved exercise performance following longer cognitive tasks. Our study investigated the effects of cognitive task duration on (1) subsequent physical endurance performance, (2) concurrent cognitive task performance, and (3) subsequent novel cognitive task performance. Adopting an experimental design, with Stroop task type (incongruent, congruent) and duration (5, 10, 20 min) as between-participant factors, participants (N = 180) completed a color word Stroop task, an isometric handgrip to exhaustion task, and a novel 5-min incongruent number word Stroop task. In the handgrip task, endurance performance was worse following incongruent word Stroop than congruent word Stroop for 10-min tasks but not 5-min and 20-min tasks. In the word Stroop task, accuracy was lower and speed was slower following incongruent word Stroop than congruent word Stroop. Importantly, reaction times improved with longer task durations. In the novel number Stroop task, accuracy was higher following incongruent word Stroop than congruent word Stroop. In conclusion, the finding that the ego depletion effect was moderated by cognitive task duration is better explained by the expected value of control model than the strength model.