The Relative Effects of Abstract Versus Concrete Processing on Proactivity in Depression

Low levels of proactivity are characteristic of individuals with depression. Two studies were conducted to compare the relative effects of abstract versus concrete processing on proactivity in high dysphoric individuals. In Study 1, participants read information about an upcoming research study and were then randomly allocated to a writing task that induced them to think about participating in that study in either an abstract (e.g., Why you would participate in the study?; n = 25) or concrete (e.g., How you will participate in the study?; n = 25) way. Participants were then asked to indicate whether they would sign up to the study. As expected, more participants indicated that they would take part in the study in the concrete condition (76%) than in the abstract condition (36%). In Study 2, high dysphoric participants were asked to identify their ideal part-time job and were then randomly allocated to a writing task that induced them to think about applying for the job in an abstract (n = 26) or concrete (n = 25) way. There was no difference between conditions in self-reported intentions of proactivity. However, significantly more participants in the concrete condition opted to look at an employment assistance website and returned to the lab to collect a job application package. Overall, these findings suggest that abstract processing could contribute to low levels of proactivity in depression, and that facilitating the use of concrete processing could help to alleviate this problem. Our results also point to the need for greater conceptual clarification of the distinction between concrete processing about proactive behavior and implementation intentions (identifying specific steps for completing an action/goal).     

Construing action abstractly and blurring social distinctions: implications for perceiving homogeneity among,but also empathizing with and helping,others

Most people's actions serve goals that, defined abstractly enough, are quite similar to one another. The authors thus proposed, and found, that construing action in abstract (vs. concrete) terms relates to perceiving greater similarity among persons both within and across different social groups (Studies 1-3). By fostering perspective taking, viewing action abstractly also related to empathizing with and expressing willingness to help nonstigmatized and stigmatized others (e.g., AIDS patients; Studies 3-5) and to donating money to help those in need (Study 6). These findings held when controlling for ideological, motivational, and broad personality variables. Abstract action construals, then, appear to blur social distinctions, fostering perspective taking and empathy on the one hand but also perceptions of group homogeneity on the other.     

Motivational,volitional and multiple goal predictors of walking in people with type 2 diabetes

BackgroundType 2 diabetes is a major public health problem. Effective diabetes self-management involves people engaging in multiple health behaviours, including physical activity. Walking is an effective, accessible and inexpensive form of physical activity, yet many people with Type 2 diabetes do not meet recommended levels. The present study aimed to: 1) identify demographic, motivational and volitional factors predictive of walking in people with Type 2 diabetes mellitus, and 2) test whether accounting for the perceived impact of other goal pursuits (goal facilitation and goal conflict) improved the prediction of walking.MethodsA theory-based cross-sectional study using the Health Action Process Approach was conducted in adults with Type 2 diabetes across Scotland. Assuming a 50% response rate 1000 questionnaires were mailed to achieve the target sample size (N = 500). Demographic information was collected, and intentional (outcome expectations, social support, risk perceptions), motivational (intention, self-efficacy), volitional (action planning, action control) and multiple goal (goal conflict, goal facilitation) factors were assessed as predictors of physical activity in general and walking specifically.ResultsThe final sample comprised 411 respondents. The majority (60%) were non-adherent to physical activity recommendations. Of 411 respondents, 356 provided walking data. Body Mass Index and age were the only demographic and anthropometric factors predictive of walking (overall R² = 0.04). When motivational factors were added, intention and self-efficacy added to the prediction (overall R² = 0.07). When volitional factors were added, only action control was predictive of walking (overall R² = 0.08). Finally, goal facilitation explained an additional 7% variance in walking when added to the model (final overall R² = 0.15).ConclusionThere was low adherence with physical activity recommendations in general and walking in particular. When testing predictors of motivational, volitional and competing goal constructs together, action control and goal facilitation emerged as predictors of walking. Future research should consider how walking can be embedded synergistically alongside other goal pursuits and how action control may help to ensure that they are pursued.     

Investigating real-time physical activity behavior using ecological momentary assessment: Effects of mental fatigue and benefit-cost valuations

BackgroundCurrent research investigating the relationship between mental fatigue and physical activity behaviors relies on laboratory-based, experimental studies which lack ecological validity.ObjectiveThis study used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to assess feelings of mental fatigue and subjective evaluations (benefits and costs) as predictors of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity in the everyday lives of young adults.MethodsOne hundred participants (n = 22 males, n = 78 females, M_age = 20.60 years, 70% meeting or exceeding physical activity guidelines) responded to digital survey prompts up to four times a day and wore an accelerometer for seven consecutive days. Moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity in the 180-min time window following each survey prompt was recorded. Data from the 28 survey-moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity epochs were analyzed using multilevel mixed-effects linear modelling.ResultsHigher levels of mental fatigue than one’s average level were associated with engaging in fewer moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity minutes (p = .004) and lower benefit vs. cost scores (p = .001). Higher benefit vs. cost scores than one’s average level were associated with engaging in more minutes of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (p < .001).ConclusionsResults are the first to demonstrate outside the lab, that mental fatigue experienced in everyday life may amplify the perceived costs of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity, with both factors playing a potential role in moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity decision-making. Future research may apply insights gained from this study in design and testing of real-time interventions promoting moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity.     

Construing action abstractly and experiencing autonomy: Implications for physical activity and diet

Mentally representing action in terms of abstract goals rather than concrete procedures has been found to facilitate self-regulation, including meeting health goals. The present research examined whether autonomous motivation mediates the association between abstract thinking and health behavior engagement. We hypothesized that abstract (vs. concrete) thinking relates to viewing oneself as behaving autonomously, which, in turn, is positively associated with engaging in health behaviors. Two studies tested whether abstract thinking is associated with greater health behavior engagement and whether autonomous motivation statistically mediates this association. In Study 1, abstract thinking was associated positively with physical activity and fruit and vegetable intake. In Study 2, supporting pre-registered hypotheses, there was a significant indirect effect of abstract thinking on vigorous physical activity and fruit and vegetable intake through autonomous motivation. Whereas past research has emphasized that abstract thinking orients attention towards the value of broader goals, this research establishes that autonomous motivation helps explain associations between abstract thinking and health behavior engagement.     

Does physical pain impair abstract thinking?

The ability to think abstractly constitutes a fundamental dimension of human cognition. Although abstraction has been extensively studied, its emotional and affective antecedents have been largely overlooked. One experiment was conducted to examine whether physical pain affects abstraction. Drawing on Construal Level Theory [Trope, Y., &; Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117, 440–463] and Loewenstein’s [(1996). Out of control: Visceral influences on behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 65, 272–292] visceral factors theory, we hypothesised that pain impairs abstraction because pain constricts people’s mental horizons and lead to a concrete, inward-focus toward oneself in the here and now. Physical pain was manipulated between subjects (N?=?150). The participants either kept their left hand immersed in cold (painful) water or neutral (painless) water while we measured abstract versus concrete behaviour identification, categorisation, and perceptual processing. Bayesian statistical analyses indicate substantial evidence against the hypothesis that pain impairs abstraction. In contrast to many other previously studied cognitive outcomes (e.g. attention), abstraction appears to be largely immune to acute, experimentally induced pain.     

Mood as a resource in dealing with health recommendations: How mood affects information processing and acceptance of quit-smoking messages

Objective: An experimental study tested the effects of positive and negative mood on the processing and acceptance of health recommendations about smoking in an online experiment. It was hypothesised that positive mood would provide smokers with the resources to systematically process self-relevant health recommendations.

Design: One hundred and twenty-seven participants (smokers and non-smokers) read a message in which a quit smoking programme was recommended. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: positive versus negative mood, and strong versus weak arguments for the recommended action.

Main outcome measures: Systematic message processing was inferred when participants were able to distinguish between high- and low-quality arguments, and by congruence between attitudes and behavioural intentions. Persuasion was measured by participant's attitudes towards smoking and the recommended action, and by their intentions to follow the action recommendation.

Results: As predicted, smokers systematically processed the health message only under positive mood conditions; non-smokers systematically processed the health message only under negative mood conditions. Moreover, smokers’ attitudes towards the health message predicted intentions to quit smoking only under positive mood conditions.

Conclusion: Findings suggest that positive mood may decrease defensive processing of self-relevant health information.     

Seeing oneself in one’s choices: Construal level and self-pertinence of electoral and consumer decisions

Building on previous research examining the implications for self-regulation and decision making of construing action at varying levels of abstraction, the authors proposed that construing action in terms of its abstract purposes facilitates orienting one’s decisions toward the standards, characteristics, and goals that define one’s desired self-concept. Consistent with this proposal, desiring for oneself a political candidate’s personal qualities predicted evaluating favorably (in Study 1) and voting for (in Study 2) that candidate to a greater extent among participants focused on the distal future (and presumably construing action at a relatively high-level of abstraction) than the proximal future (and presumably construing action at a relatively low-level of abstraction). Moreover, individuals chronically construing action in high-level terms responded more favorably to advertisements appealing to their desired self-concept (in Study 3) than to product quality. These findings’ implications for decision making are discussed.     

The effect of video observation on warmth and competence ratings of individuals with a disability

ObjectivesThis study examined whether a video featuring an adult with a physical disability engaging in either sport, exercise, or an activity of daily living (ADL) can mitigate negative stereotypes of disability held by people without a disability.DesignThis study used a pre-post design, involving three participant groups.MethodsParticipants (n = 212) read a vignette describing an adult with a disability (target). Consistent with the stereotype content model, participants judged the target's warmth and competence. One week later, participants viewed a video of the target participating in sport, exercise, or an ADL and judged the target's warmth and competence.ResultsJudgements of competence but not warmth changed over time. The greatest increases occurred in the sport condition. At follow-up, the typical high warmth low competence stereotype of disability was reversed; the character was judged as being more competent than warm especially in the sport condition.ConclusionVideos of adults with a disability engaging in physical activity, particularly sport, have potential to mitigate negative stereotypes of disability.     

Dissonance and abstraction: Cognitive conflict leads to higher level of construal

This study investigated the effects of cognitive conflict on abstract thinking. According to action‐identification theory, an ambiguous and unfamiliar situation might propel an individual to a more abstract mindset. Based on this premise, cognitive conflict was hypothesized to put people in an abstract mindset. The induced compliance paradigm, in which participants are asked to write a counter‐attitudinal essay under either low choice (producing little dissonance) or high choice (producing more dissonance), was employed. Results showed that an abstract mindset was in fact activated in the induced compliance paradigm, and this effect was more pronounced for participants having a more concrete mindset to begin with. The results suggest that the experience of cognitive conflict is closely related to increased abstraction.     

Equal prioritisation does not yield lower levels of participation in physical activities than higher prioritisation

ObjectivesThis study examined whether individuals who assigned equal priority to physical activity and an alternative activity exhibited lower levels of participation in physical activities than individuals who assigned higher priority to physical activity than an alternative activity. In addition, we examined whether a measure of prioritisation derived from an algebraic difference index provided a rigorous test of prioritisation effects.DesignWe employed a two-wave prospective design that aimed to predict physical activity participation.MethodPrioritisation, intentions and perceptions of control were measured at the first wave of data collection. After five weeks, we administered follow-up measures of behavioural conflict and physical activity participation.ResultsA hierarchical regression analysis showed that although the algebraic difference index was positively associated with measures of physical activity participation, equal prioritisation did not yield lower levels of physical activity participation than high prioritisation.ConclusionsFindings suggest that equal prioritisation is not a less optimal self-regulatory strategy than high prioritisation in the domain of physical activity. Regression coefficients associated with algebraic difference indexes should be interpreted with caution and consider analyses that examine effects of component measures of prioritisation on physical activity participation.     

Time for change: using implementation intentions to promote physical activity in a randomised pilot trial

Objective: A common barrier to exercise is a perceived lack of time. The current pilot study examined the effects of an implementation intention intervention to enhance exercise self-efficacy, increase confidence to exercise when facing time constraints, and increase physical activity in middle-aged adults (n?=?63, aged 35–69). Design: Participants received a pedometer (Fitbit) to objectively measure activity and were randomly assigned to either a control or intervention condition. After a 1-week baseline, the intervention condition received instructions to plan how, where, and when they would add steps to their daily routine to meet their step goal, using personalised schedules and maps. Both groups were contacted nightly via email. Main Outcome Measures: Physical activity (steps and time spent in moderate-to-vigorous activity), goal achievement, exercise self-efficacy, time-relevant exercise self-efficacy and affect. Results: Compared to the control, the intervention condition significantly increased in steps, time spent in moderate-to-vigorous activity, and time-relevant exercise self-efficacy. Goal achievement was related to greater time-relevant exercise self-efficacy and more positive affect at the daily level. Conclusion: Findings suggest that the personalised planning intervention increased physical activity and confidence in achieving physical activity goals under time constraints. Avenues for future directions, especially for producing more sustained effects, are discussed.     

The physical activity experiences of men with serious mental illness: Three short stories

ObjectivesAlthough a considerable amount of research has explored the effects of physical activity on mental health, the voices of people with mental illness have been largely excluded from published reports. Through this study we aim to foreground service users’ voices in order to shed light on the personal and subjective nature of the relationship between physical activity and serious mental illness (SMI).MethodsAn interpretive case study approach was used to explore in depth the physical activity experiences of three men with SMI. Creative analytic practice was used to write three creative non-fictions which, as first-person narratives, foreground the participants’ voices.ResultsWe present three short stories in an effort to communicate participants’ personal and subjective experiences of physical activity in an accessible, engaging, and evocative manner. We hope to: (i) provide potentially motivating physical activity success stories for others who live with SMI; (ii) increase awareness among mental health professionals of the possibilities of physical activity; and (iii) provide an empathetic understanding of possibilities and problems of living with SMI which may help challenge the stigma surrounding mental illness.ConclusionsFor us, the stories communicate the diversity and difference inherent in the ways men with SMI experience physical activity. We reflect on how the short story form allows these differences to be preserved and respected. We resist making further interpretations of the stories preferring instead to encourage the reader to form her or his own conclusions.     

Perceived self-regulation of exercise goals and interfering goals among regular and irregular exercisers: a life space analysis

ObjectivesTo investigate whether adults self-classified as regular and irregular exercisers tend to differentially perceive the self-regulation of their exercise goals (a between groups comparison) and whether the groups’ differ in their self-regulatory perceptions of an exercise goal versus a goal that strongly interferes with exercise (a within groups comparison).DesignsCross-Sectional Survey.MethodsCollege students (N=399, 66% female), who were either regular or irregular exercisers, completed the Goal Systems Assessment Battery [GSAB; Karoly, P., & Ruehlman, L. S. (1995). Goal cognition and its clinical implications: Development and preliminary validation of four motivational assessment instruments. Assessment, 2, 113–129] for the goal of exercise and for a self-selected interfering goal. The GSAB gauges how individuals evaluate multiple functional components of self-regulation.ResultsA doubly multivariate MANOVA revealed a significant interaction between exercise regularity and goal type. Irregular exercisers manifested a pattern of goal regulatory thinking favoring their interfering goal relative to their exercise goal with respect to its value and the extent of their monitoring, planning, social comparison, and self-rewarding their progress toward that goal. Regular exercisers tended not to make such regulatory distinctions.ConclusionsAlthough life pursuits identified as interfering with exercise (e.g. academic goals) generally require more of a psychological investment than engaging in exercise, regular exercisers tend to construe their physical activity goals in a manner that closely matches their ratings of competing life aspirations. A dual focus on exercise goals and their aspirational rivals may inform motivational theory and intervention.     

Exercise video games are associated with more positive affective response,which predicts physical activity adherence

BackgroundA more positive affective valence during exercise is predictive of adherence to physical activity programs. This study examines the relationship between affective response during exercise and longer-term maintenance of physical activity among individuals using exercise video games (EVGs) and standard modalities of physical activity (i.e., walking, cycling).MethodsHealthy adults (mean age 45.4, SD = 14.5) were randomly assigned to a 12-week supervised, thrice weekly program of EVGs (n = 93) or Standard exercise (n = 96), and were assessed for affect immediately before, at the mid-point, and immediately after one exercise session per week. Participation in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was conducted at end of treatment (EOT) and 6-month follow up.ResultsEVG participants reported more positive affective valence during exercise compared to Standard participants (b = 0.63, SE = 0.08, p < .001), and perceived less exertion (b = 0.52, SE = 0.36, p = .04) compared to Standard participants. For both groups, a more positive affective valence during exercise was significantly predictive of continued physical activity at 6-months (b = 6.64, SE = 2.50, p = .01). EVG participants also showed a significant chronic effect such that week-to-week there were improvements in affect prior to exercise and this effect was significantly associated with greater MPVA at EOT and follow-up (b = 21.96, SE = 10.10, p = .03 at EOT). Among Standard participants no significant chronic effect was seen over time.ConclusionsEVGs may provide an effective means of promoting more positive shifts in affective valence both during, and in anticipation of, physical activity that encourages longer-term participation.     

Stage of physical activity and approach-avoidance achievement goals in university students

ObjectivesThe main purpose of the present investigation was to examine approach-avoidance achievement goal patterns across stages of physical activity participation. In addition, sex differences in the approach and avoidance goals were examined as well as goal contrast scores (i.e., approach minus avoidance) as secondary purposes.DesignThe research was cross-sectional in design.MethodParticipants were 804 university students who completed a questionnaire assessing their stage of physical activity, 2 × 2 achievement goals, and demographics.ResultsMANOVA results revealed hypothesized and significant (p < .001) physical activity stage differences in the mastery and performance approach goals as well as significant (p's < .05) gender differences in both performance goals. A significant (p < .01) gender by physical activity stage interaction emerged for the performance goals and surprisingly, was found mainly in the advanced exercise stages (i.e., action, maintenance, and long-term maintenance). Last, significant (p < .001) gender and physical activity stage main effects emerged for the achievement goal contrasts. Males endorsed both the mastery and performance contrasts more than females. Collapsed for both sexes, the contrast scores were greater in the physically active than the non-active stages.ConclusionsFindings suggested that interventions targeting physical activity in university students should emphasize approach goals relative to the avoidance goals. Particular attention should be paid to the performance goals in the maintenance and long-term maintenance stages as they appeared theoretically inconsistent for the female participants. Last, the split in the preparation stage (active, non-active) should be incorporated into future stage based investigations as the split demonstrated two meaningfully different subgroups.     

Do web-based competitions promote physical activity? Randomized controlled trial

ObjectivesIntroducing competitions may inspire positive behaviour change but they tend to be implemented alongside other strategies. Thus, the study examined the effectiveness of a competitive web-based intervention to promote physical activity, disentangled the effects of competition from other behaviour change techniques, and identified underlying mediators.DesignRandomized controlled trial.MethodsPhysically inactive adults living or working in a UK city (n = 281) were recruited. Participants were randomized to one of three web-based conditions: a control group; a group encouraged to self-monitor their steps and who received basic feedback; a group encouraged to self-monitor their steps who received basic feedback plus additional feedback to instigate competition. Participants' physical activity was monitored through pedometers for one-week pre-intervention and for four-weeks during the intervention period. Participants completed the BREQ-2 and measures of intention, planning, goal conflict, goal importance, effort, commitment, perceived behavioural control and self-efficacy pre- and post-intervention.ResultsParticipants in the competition condition increased their steps significantly more than those in the control group with the effect being mediated by increased goal importance, identified motivation and intrinsic motivation. Participants in the competition condition increased their steps more than those in the self-monitoring condition. There was weaker evidence that the self-monitoring group increased their steps more than those in the control condition.ConclusionsSelf-monitoring and feedback can increase physical activity but adding a competitive component, implemented via the web, can boost goal importance, identified motivation and intrinsic motivation that mediate these increases in physical activity.     

An initial search for visual overshadowing

A consistent, albeit fragile, finding over the last couple of decades has been that verbalization of hard-to-verbalize stimuli, such as faces, interferes with subsequent recognition of the described target stimulus. We sought to elicit a similar phenomenon whereby visualization interferes with verbal recognition—that is, visual overshadowing. We randomly assigned participants (n?=?180) to either concrete (easy to visualize) or abstract (difficult to visualize) sentence conditions. Following presentation, participants were asked to verbalize the sentence, visualize the sentence, or work on a filler task. As predicted, visualization of an abstract verbal stimulus resulted in significantly lower recognition accuracy; unexpectedly, however, so did verbalization. The findings are discussed within the framework of fuzzy-trace theory.     

How semantic content of stimuli works on episodic memory processes in negative schizophrenia: Evidence from picture recognition

IntroductionEven though episodic memory is impaired in schizophrenia, semantic processing strategies can improve patients’ performance. However, it is less clear if negative schizophrenia patients can benefit from semantic strategies, and if both familiarity and recollection processes can be enhanced in patients with schizophrenia.ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to investigate the possibility for negative schizophrenia patients to enhance their familiarity and/or recollection processes in the presence of concrete images.MethodA recognition memory task using concrete versus abstract images as stimuli was designed to assess the performance of schizophrenia patients for single item recognition and the recollection of spatial context, allowing us to calculate the estimates of familiarity and recollection processes. Thirty-six patients with schizophrenia and 18 healthy individuals participated to the study. Schizophrenia patients were divided into two groups according to their scores on the negative scale of the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale for Schizophrenia (PANSS).ResultsResults showed that, while healthy participants enhanced their recollection estimates in the presence of concrete images, both schizophrenia groups could enhance their familiarity estimates.ConclusionSemantic strategies are helpful to promote successful familiarity process in schizophrenia patients, independently from clinical dimension of negativity. However, recollection process seems not to respond to such strategies.