Charting the Developmental Trajectories of Attention and Executive Function in Chinese School-Aged Children

Attention is a complex domain that has reawakened research interest in recent years. There are relatively few studies that have examined age-related changes across different attention subcomponents, such as selection, maintenance, and control, using large samples covering a wide age range. The present study assessed performance in 466 participants in order to identify the ages at which mature performance was reached across differing attention subcomponents. Furthermore, we investigated whether the nature of the attentional demands or task difficulty predicted the age at which stable levels of performance were reached. The results supported the former rather than the latter alternative.     

Links Between Disorganized Attachment Classification and Clinical Symptoms in School-Aged Children

Research examining the links between disorganized attachment and clinical symptoms largely has neglected middle childhood due to lack of available measurement tools. The few studies that have examined these links in other developmental phases have found higher clinical symptoms in disorganized individuals. Our study extended this research by using a recently-developed attachment interview measure ideally suited to evaluate disorganized attachment in middle childhood. We examined concurrent associations among disorganized attachment in 8–12 year old children and symptoms of psychopathology theoretically hypothesized for their links with disorganized attachment. Using child- and parent-reports, we measured symptoms of depression, social anxiety, shyness, inattention, and thought problems. During our two-session study, 97 children completed the Child Attachment Interview, and children and parents completed clinical questionnaires. Results suggested that disorganized attachment was associated with higher child reports of depressive symptoms and shyness, and with parent-reports of social anxiety, inattention, and thought problems, and that disorganized children are more likely to have symptoms that meet clinical criteria. Implications for the relation of attachment to psychopathology are discussed.     

Assessing Reflective Parenting in Interaction With School-Aged Children

The aim of this study was to examine whether it was possible to develop a reliable and valid assessment of reflective parenting implicit in interaction with school-aged children using an adaptation of the Squiggle paradigm developed by Winnicott (1968 Winnicott, D. W. (1968). Playing: Its theoretical status in the clinical situation. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 49, 591–599.[PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and a manualized coding system (Normandin, Leroux, Ensink, Terradas, &; Fonagy, 2015 Normandin, L., Leroux, A., Ensink, K., Terradas, M. M., &; Fonagy, P. (2015). Reflective Parenting Assessment coding manual (Unpublished manual). University Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada. [Google Scholar]). A total of 158 mother–child dyads participated when children were age 5 to 12. Of this group, 89 children had experienced sexual abuse. Interrater reliability using the manualized coding system was excellent. The factor analysis identified a reflective parenting stance factor, in addition to an affectionate support factor and a negative parenting factor. Furthermore, there was a medium strength relationship between the mother's reflective parenting stance evident in her interactions with her child and parental reflective functioning assessed using the Parent Development Interview (Slade, Aber, Bresgi, Berger, &; Kaplan, 2004 Slade, A., Aber, J. L., Bresgi, I., Berger, B., &; Kaplan, M. (2004). The Parent Development Interview–Revised (Unpublished protocol). The City University of New York, New York, NY. [Google Scholar]), suggesting the parental reflective stance is a good indicator of parental reflective functioning in interaction. With regard to parent reports of child internalizing and externalizing behaviors, the reflective parenting stance was the only predictor of internalizing difficulties and a significant predictor of externalizing difficulties in addition to sexual abuse.     

The Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire in Mothers and Fathers of School-Aged Children

Research on parental reflective functioning (PRF)—defined as parents’ capacity to comprehend the developing mind of their child, reflect upon it, and hold in mind the inner life of the child—has mostly involved mothers of infants and young children, and rarely fathers and parents of school-aged children. The present study sought to extend research on PRF by examining aspects of the construct that are still scarcely explored, such as the role of gender and attachment; to investigate whether there were differences between mothers’ and fathers’ PRF and whether there were differences in PRF related to the gender and age of the child; and, finally, to assess the association between PRF and each parent’s attachment style. The Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire (PRFQ) and the Attachment Style Questionnaire (ASQ) were administered to a community sample of mothers and fathers of 385 children aged 3–10 years. A multi-group factor analysis supported the hypothesized three-factor model among both fathers and mothers. Univariate and multivariate analyses of variance showed that mothers had higher levels of interest and curiosity in their children’s mental states than fathers. Parents of daughters showed higher pre-mentalizing modes than parents of sons. Parents of preschool children showed less nonmentalizing modes than parents of children aged 8–10. Correlations between PRFQ and ASQ showed that both mothers’ and fathers’ interest in thinking about their child’s internal experience and in taking the child’s perspective were correlated with higher levels of secure attachment style. Research implications are discussed.     

The Development of Selective Attention in Children With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

The influence of age on a selective attention task was studied in a sample of children with and without Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The impact of methylphenidate (MPH) treatment on selective attention was also investigated in the children with ADHD. Two age groups of children with ADHD and two age groups of control children were tested using a timed computer task. The task consisted of identifying visual target stimuli under various distracter conditions. Distracters varied on the basis of modality (i.e., visual, auditory, or both) and task relevance (i.e., meaningful or irrelevant). Reaction times and accuracy were measured. Children with ADHD were less efficient on the selective attention task than were children without ADHD, and older children were more efficient than younger children in both groups. Children without ADHD were influenced more by the nature of distracters than were children with ADHD. For children with ADHD, MPH improved performance overall.     

Family Conflict and Violent Electronic Media Use in School-Aged Children

Using a national sample of children aged 6 to 12 (N = 1,075), this study examined the relative merits of 3 theoretical perspectives on the relation between family conflict and children's use of electronic media (television and electronic games with violent content): (a) the family context hypothesis, whereby family conflict is positively related to violent electronic media use because family tensions will be reflected in children's interest in media with violent content; (b) the reaction hypothesis, whereby family conflict is positively related to nonviolent media use because children seek out nonviolent media content as a reaction against conflict in their family environment; and (c) the escape hypothesis, whereby family conflict is positively related to total electronic media use because children use media to escape family conflict regardless of content. Results supported the family context hypothesis. There was no support for the reaction and escape hypotheses.     

Gender Differences and Cognitive Correlates of Mathematical Skills in School-Aged Children

Published information concerning the influence of gender on mathematical ability tests has been controversial. The present study examines the performance of school-aged boys and girls from two age groups on several mathematical tasks and analyzes the predictive value of a verbal fluency test and a spatial test on those mathematical tasks. More specifically, our research attempts to answer the following two questions: (1) Are gender differences in mathematical test performance among children interrelated with age and (2) do verbal and spatial nonmathematical tests mediate gender effects on mathematical test performance? Two hundred and seventy-eight 7- to 10-year-old children and 248 13- to 16-year-olds were selected from schools in Colombia and Mexico (231 boys and 295 girls). The age effect was found to be significant for all measures, with scores improving with age. Results showed that boys and girls in both age groups scored similarly in most subtests, but that differences emerged in the performance of mental mathematical operations and in resolving arithmetical problems. In the latter – but not in mental math – older boys outperformed older girls, whereas no gender differences were observed in the younger groups. After controlling for age, it was found that the spatial test was, indeed, a significant mediator of gender effects, while the verbal task was not.     

Attention in Children with Myelomeningocele

This study examined attentional functioning in 64 children with myelomeningocele and 27 of their siblings, all ranging from 8 to 15 years of age. The children were assessed using measures of Mirsky's (1996) four elements of attention: encode, sustain, focus/execute, and shift. Their academic achievement also was assessed, and their parents provided ratings of attentional behavior. Demographic and medical background variables were derived from parent questionnaires, and medical records for children with myelomeningocele. Children with myelomeningocele showed deficits across all four elements of attention compared to siblings. Demographic and medical background variables predicted individual differences in the four elements of attention among children with myelomeningocele. The four elements of attention predicted behavior ratings and academic achievement, although the predictive relationships were different for the two outcomes and for the children with myelomeningocele and their siblings.     

The Neuropsychology of Parkinsons-Disease

This article discusses the neuropsychological profile of Parkinsons disease from the perspective of cognitive theory, anatomical organization, and unit recording data. Despite the point of origin, methodologically controlled studies are converging to support the position that patients with this disorder suffer selective impairment in the acquisition of novel tasks which rely on internal (subjective) processing for the efficient establishment of new cognitive ′habits." The roles of attention and learning as well as of unit activity within the relevant networks are considered. Also included are recent but important concepts from personality theory which potentially enhance understanding of the neuropsychology of Parkinsons disease.     

Callous-Unemotional Traits are Uniquely Associated with Poorer Peer Functioning in School-Aged Children

This study examines externalizing symptoms (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], conduct problems, and callous-unemotional [CU] traits) in relation to domains of peer functioning (social competence, loneliness, and close friendship quality), with a specific focus on the role of CU traits. One hundred twenty-four elementary students (grades 3–6; 45% boys) completed multiple measures of peer functioning, and teachers completed measures of externalizing symptoms and social competence. After controlling for demographic variables and other externalizing symptoms, CU traits were significantly associated with poorer peer functioning across all variables except for demands of exclusivity in close friendships. ADHD symptoms were also uniquely associated with poorer social functioning across a number of variables. In contrast, conduct problems were at times associated with better social functioning after controlling for the effects of other externalizing problems. These findings bolster the importance of developing and evaluating social skills interventions for children displaying elevated CU traits.     

Elicited Imitation Performance at 20 Months Predicts Memory Abilities in School-Aged Children

During the first decade of life, there are marked improvements in mnemonic abilities. An important question from both a theoretical and applied perspective is the extent of continuity in the nature of memory during this period. The present longitudinal investigation examined declarative memory during the transition from toddlerhood to school age using both experimental and standardized assessments. Results indicate significant associations between immediate nonverbal recall at 20 months (measured by elicited imitation) and immediate verbal and nonverbal memory (measured by standardized and laboratory-based tasks) at 6 years in typically developing children. Regression models revealed this association was specific, as measures of language abilities and temperament were not predictive of later memory performance. These findings suggest both continuity and specificity within the declarative memory system during the first years of life. Theoretical and applied implications of these findings are discussed.     

The Relationship Between Measures of Cognitive Attention and Behavioral Ratings of Attention in Typically Developing Children

In the present study, we explored the relation between performance on cognitive measures of attention (selection, sustained, and control) and behavioral ratings of inattention and hyperactivity in a sample of typically developing children aged 3 to 7 years. We also examined the influence of chronological age and IQ on both task performance and behavior ratings. Four well-documented attention paradigms were employed, the Visearch (single-target search) task as a measure of selective attention, the Continuous Performance Test (CPT) as a measure of sustained attention, the Day-Night task as a measure of response inhibition, and the Visearch (dual-target search) task as a measure of inhibitory control. The Conners' Rating Scales (Cognitive/Inattention and Hyperactivity subscales) were used to allow for a finer tuned comparison of cognitive performance as related to inattentive behaviors versus hyperactive behaviors. Findings indicate that accuracy and speed in the Visearch dual search task were the most sensitive measures relating respectively to inattentive and hyperactive rated behaviors.     

Motor and Visual-spatial Cognition Development in Primary School-Aged Children in Cameroon and Germany

It was the main goal of this study to investigate the motor and visual-spatial development in primary school-aged children in Cameroon and Germany. Thirty-four children from each country completed a motor test and a mental rotation test. It was found that children in Cameroon showed a better motor ability (better overall gross motor score and also on most single items) than children in Germany did. This can be explained by the early motor stimulation in infancy in Cameroon. Concerning mental rotation performance, Cameroonian children perform below chance level. A positive correlation between the overall motor ability and mental rotation performance could only be analyzed and conducted in the German sample. Therefore, this study emphasizes the need for the development of culture-fair cognitive tests.     

儿童外显视空间注意转移

采用提示范式探讨了三、六年级儿童的外显视空间注意转移。实验结果表明：内源性提示下儿童表现出显著的提示效度效应,其效度效应量在年龄组间没有显著差异;较短SOAs的外源性提示下,儿童表现出显著的提示效度效应;较长SOAs的外源性提示下儿童没有表现出返回抑制效应。用注意的过滤器理论和对象文件模型讨论了本研究的结果     

A Systematic Review of Frequency Building and Precision Teaching with School-Aged Children

This paper presents a systematic review of the literature that assessed the effectiveness of frequency building and precision teaching with school-aged children. The authors evaluated studies in accordance with the What Works Clearinghouse standards and the council for exceptional children standards for evidence-based practices in special education. A total of 11 studies examining the effectiveness of frequency building and precision teaching for 170 participants were included in this review. Additionally, effect sizes were calculated for eligible studies. Small to large effects were found for all included variables. Overall, results indicated that the combination of frequency building and precision teaching is an effective method for increasing a variety of academic skills with school-aged children. Limitations, recommendations for future research, and implications for practitioners are discussed.

     

Biases in Visual Attention in Children and Adolescents With Clinical Anxiety and Mixed Anxiety-Depression

Recent research has indicated that anxious adult and child patients and high trait-anxious adults selectively shift attention toward threatening stimuli. The present study extends this research and investigates the content-specificity of the effects in clinically anxious and mixed anxious–depressed children and adolescents. Twenty four generally anxious patients, aged 9 to 18, 19 mixed anxious–depressed patients, and 24 normal controls were comparable with respect to age, sex, verbal IQ, and vocabulary level. The participants carried out an attentional deployment task in which probe detection latency data were used to determine the distribution of visual attention for threat-related and depression-related material. The results showed that clinically anxious children, relative to controls, selectively allocated processing resources toward threat stimuli. However, mixed anxious–depressed children, relative to controls, did not show any attentional bias towards either threat- or depression-related stimuli. Preliminary data on age and gender differences are also presented. The results of this study are discussed in the light of previous research.     

Low Working Memory rather than ADHD Symptoms Predicts Poor Academic Achievement in School-Aged Children

This study examined whether working memory (WM), inattentive symptoms, and/or hyperactive/impulsive symptoms significantly contributed to academic, behavioral, and global functioning in 8-year-old children. One-hundred-sixty 8-year-old children (75.6% male), who were originally recruited as preschoolers, completed subtests from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fourth Edition, Integrated and Wechsler Individual Achievement Test–Second Edition to assess WM and academic achievement, respectively. Teachers rated children’s academic and behavioral functioning using the Vanderbilt Rating Scale. Global functioning, as rated by clinicians, was assessed by the Children’s Global Assessment Scale. Multiple linear regressions were completed to determine the extent to which WM (auditory-verbal and visual-spatial) and/or inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive symptom severity significantly contributed to academic, behavioral, and/or global functioning. Both auditory-verbal and visual-spatial WM but not ADHD symptom severity, significantly and independently contributed to measures of academic achievement (all p < 0.01). In contrast, both WM and inattention symptoms (p < 0.01), but not hyperactivity-impulsivity (p > 0.05) significantly contributed to teacher-ratings of academic functioning. Further, inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity (p < 0.04), but not WM (p > 0.10) were significantly associated with teacher-ratings of behavioral functioning and clinician-ratings of global functioning. Taken together, it appears that WM in children may be uniquely related to academic skills, but not necessarily to overall behavioral functioning.     

Diagnostic Stability of ADHD in a Community Sample of School-Aged Children Screened for Disruptive Behavior

A large school-based sample of children in Grades 1, 2, 3, and 4 were screened for disruptive behavior and subsequently assessed over a 5-year period for DSM-III-R symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and other externalizing and internalizing behavior disorders. Parents completed structured diagnostic interviews in Years 1, 4, and 5, and teachers completed Behavioral Assessment for Children—Teacher Rating Scales behavioral ratings annually. For parent-derived diagnostic data, both inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptom groups declined from Year 1 to Year 4, with hyperactivity showing more significant decline. For teacher-rated behavioral dimensions, the Attention Problems scale declined from Year 1 to Year 3 and stabilized thereafter. The Hyperactivity scale showed stability during the first 3 years before declining in Year 4. Of those children diagnosed with ADHD in Year 1, 69% still met criteria for ADHD in either Year 4 or 5. Persisters were more likely to exhibit coexisting conduct disorder in Year 1 and oppositional defiant disorder in Years 1, 4, and 5. Parents of persisters reported more psychosocial adversity on measures of parenting and marital satisfaction.     

注意缺陷多动障碍儿童的表征搜索

为探索ADHD儿童在时间维度上的视觉选择性注意的基本机制,揭示其表征搜索能力是否存在缺陷,研究采用RSVP范式,通过实验材料(字母和数字)和呈现方式操作两种搜索方式:序列搜索和平行搜索,比较ADHD儿童(18名)和控制组儿童(17名)的成绩差异。结果发现:①在平行搜索和序列搜索条件下,ADHD儿童的成绩均低于正常控制组;②比较平行搜索和序列搜索条件下的成绩变化,以及由低难度到高难度上成绩的变化,无论是正确率还是反应时均发现ADHD儿童和正常儿童具有相同的成绩变化模式。结论认为ADHD儿童在视觉选择性注意的基本搜索机制上并不存在明显缺陷。