Concurrent and 2-year longitudinal relations between executive function and the behavior of 1st and 2nd grade children.

Abstract Concurrent and 2-year longitudinal relations were investigated between two indicators of children's ( n =60; mean age = years 11 months) executive function, inhibitory control and sequencing ability, and behavior problem symptomatology. Dependent measures were parent and teacher reported internalizing and externalizing behavior. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses demonstrated few significant concurrent associations between either inhibitory control or sequencing ability, and behavior problem symptoms. In contrast, baseline inhibitory control predicted decreased teacher reported externalizing, and parent reported externalizing and internalizing behavior problems over a 2-year period. Baseline sequencing ability also predicted decreased teacher reported externalizing and parent reported internalizing behavior over this same time period. Results suggest that some aspects of executive function in early elementary grade-school children may be more strongly associated with change in behavior over time than concurrent behavior. Implications of these findings for the prevention of behavior problems are discussed.     

父母婚姻质量与儿童行为问题的追踪研究：儿童努力控制的调节作用

本研究采用母亲报告法,对474名学前儿童进行了为期一年的追踪研究,考察完整家庭中父母婚姻质量对儿童行为问题的影响,以及儿童努力控制的调节作用。结果表明:(1) 父母婚姻质量对学前儿童的外显和内隐行为问题均有即时的负向预测作用;(2) 儿童的努力控制对其当前、后期的外显和内隐行为问题均有负向预测作用;(3) 第一年儿童的努力控制对父母婚姻质量与儿童行为问题之间关系的调节作用成立。     

The behaviour style observation system for young children predicts teacher‐reported externalizing behaviour in middle childhood

The Behaviour Style Observation System for Young Children (BSOS) was used to predict preschool‐aged children's externalizing and internalizing behaviour problems in middle childhood, 3–5 years after the initial assessment. This observational measurement tool was designed to sample and assess young children's disruptive, non‐compliant, and unresponsive behaviour, during a brief (11 min) observation in the child's home. In the current study, the BSOS was used to predict parent and teacher ratings of child behaviour problems after school entry in a longitudinal sample (N=81) of at‐risk children at time 2. The BSOS predicted teacher‐reported externalizing problems at time 2. In contrast, parent reports of behaviour problems, although correlated with repeated parent reports at time 2, were not significantly predictive of teacher‐reported behaviour problems at school age. The BSOS was not associated with either parent or teacher reports of internalizing problems. These findings emphasize the importance and utility of using observational measures when examining the continuity of behaviour problems in young children over time. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The relationship between Turkish children's perceptions of marital conflict and their internalizing and externalizing problems

The present study investigated the relationship between children's perceptions of marital conflict and children's internalizing and externalizing problems. Additionally, investigating gender and age differences in children's perceptions and the type of problems they exhibited were the other purposes of the study. The sample consisted of 9‐ to 12‐year‐old, nonclinical children from intact families (N = 232), one of their parents, and teachers. The data were gathered by administering the Child Behavior Checklist for Ages 4–18 and the Teacher's Report Form to adult participants and the Children's Perception of Interparental Conflict Scale and the Children's Depression Inventory to the child participants. Findings indicated that there was a significant relationship between children's perceptions of marital conflict and their internalizing and externalizing problems. More specifically, children's perceptions of conflict properties were associated with their internalizing problems in parents', teachers', and children's reports. Children's perceptions of threat were associated with child‐reported depression. Children's perceptions of self‐blame were associated with child‐reported depression, parent‐reported internalizing and externalizing problems, and teacher‐reported externalizing problems. Furthermore, it was found that there were gender and age differences in children's perceptions of marital conflict and their internalizing and externalizing problems. Findings indicated that boys have higher self‐blame scores and teacher‐reported externalizing problems than girls and that girls have more parent‐ and teacher‐reported internalizing problems than boys. Additionally, it was found that 9‐year‐old children have more teacher‐reported internalizing and externalizing problems than 12‐year‐old children. Also, 9‐year‐old boys have higher parent‐reported externalizing problems than 9‐year‐old girls and 9‐year‐old boys have higher parent‐reported externalizing problems than 12‐year‐old boys.     

Measurement of Impulsivity: Construct Coherence, Longitudinal Stability, and Relationship with Externalizing Problems in Middle Childhood and Adolescence

This study focused on the assessment of impulsivity in nonreferred school-aged children. Children had been participants since infancy in the Bloomington Longitudinal Study. Individual differences in impulsivity were assessed in the laboratory when children were 6 (44 boys, 36 girls) and 8 (50 boys, 39 girls) years of age. Impulsivity constructs derived from these assessments were related to parent and teacher ratings of externalizing problems across the school-age period (ages 7–10) and to parent and self-ratings of these outcomes across adolescence (ages 14–17). Consistent with prior research, individual measures of impulsivity factor-analyzed into subdimensions reflecting children's executive control capabilities, delay of gratification, and ability or willingness to sustain attention and compliance during work tasks. Children's performance on the main interactive task index, inhibitory control, showed a signficant level of stability between ages 6 and 8. During the school-age years, children who performed impulsively on the laboratory measures were perceived by mothers and by teachers as more impulsive, inattentive, and overactive than others, affirming the external validity of the impulsivity constructs. Finally, impulsive behavior in the laboratory at ages 6 and 8 predicted maternal and self-ratings of externalizing problem behavior across adolescence, supporting the longterm predictive value of the laboratory-derived impulsivity measures.     

Exploring predictors of change in behavioral problems over a 1-year period in preterm born preschoolers

ObjectiveAlthough predictors of the prevalence of behavioral problems in preterm-born children have been frequently studied, predictors of behavioral change in these children remain unknown. Therefore, in this study we explore predictors of short-term changes in problem behavior in preterm-born preschoolers, an age period characterized by rapid behavioral change.MethodTwo- to 5-year-old children born with a gestational age <32 weeks and/or birth weight <1500 g were eligible, because of their high risk for behavioral problems. Following screening, 59 children with a t-score ≥60 on either the internal, external or total problem scale of the Child Behavior Checklist were included in the study. Linear mixed modeling was used to investigate predictors of change in behavior over a 1-year period.ResultsHigher levels of parenting stress, parent perceived child vulnerability, and parental hostility towards the child and lower educational levels of the mother significantly predicted increases in externalizing behavior. The higher the age of the child, the more internalizing problems decreased.ConclusionsParenting stress, parent perceived child vulnerability and parental hostility towards the child were the only modifiable predictors of increases in externalizing behavior, whilst no modifiable predictors of internalizing behavior were found. There may be a reciprocal interaction between stress in parents and child externalizing problems. Furthermore, stress and worries may directly influence parents’ reports on behavioral measures, because it could cause them to be concerned by behavior otherwise perceived as normal. Therefore, future interventions for parents of preterm-born children should primarily address parental stress and concerns regarding their child.     

学前儿童执行功能与问题行为的关系:情境和性别的特异性

运用追踪设计检验了学前儿童执行功能特定成分和问题行为跨情境和性别的关系。选取101名学前儿童（48名男孩）为研究对象,采用实验任务测量儿童的执行功能,一年后采用母亲和教师报告分别收集儿童在家庭和学校情境的问题行为。结果发现,控制儿童年龄后：（1）在男孩中,抑制控制、认知灵活性和工作记忆负向预测一年后家庭情境的外化问题,认知灵活性负向预测一年后学校情境的外化问题,抑制控制正向预测一年后学校情境的内化问题;（2）在女孩中,执行功能三个成分均不能显著预测家庭情境的问题行为,认知灵活性正向预测一年后学校情境的外化问题。执行功能三个成分与问题行为间存在不同效应模式,且存在跨情境和性别的特异性。     

Effects of Maternal Depression Symptoms and Alcohol Use Problems on Child Internalizing and Externalizing Behavior Problems

Empirical evidence suggests maternal behavioral health problems are significant predictors of child behavioral health difficulties, but it is unclear of the specific relation of maternal alcohol use problems and depression symptoms with child internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. The purpose of the study is to examine the impact of maternal depression symptoms and alcohol use problems on children’s internalizing and externalizing behavior problems over a period of 5 years. Implications for intervention may differ depending on which type of maternal behavioral health concerns predicts which child behavior problem. A total of 1874 families eligible for Early Head Start participated. Maternal depression symptoms and alcohol use problems were assessed when children were in preschool, and internalizing and externalizing behavior problems were assessed when children were in fifth grade. Clinical internalizing behavior problems was best predicted by maternal depression symptoms, whereas clinical externalizing behavior problems was best predicted by maternal alcohol use problems. Children were almost twice as likely to have clinical internalizing behavior problems when mothers exhibited very elevated depression symptoms compared to when mothers displayed minimal symptoms. A similar relation was found with maternal alcohol use problems and clinical externalizing behavior problems. Our findings highlight the importance of understanding and treating various kinds of behavioral health concerns in mothers of young children.     

Developmental changes in the relations between inhibitory control and externalizing problems during early childhood

Deficits in executive function, and in particular, reduced capacity to inhibit a dominant action, are a risk factor for externalizing problems (EP). Inhibitory control (IC) develops in the later preschool and early childhood periods, such that IC might not regulate EP in toddlers and younger preschoolers. Aggression was observed during peer play for 66 girls and 49 boys, from 2.75 to 6.00 years (M=4.14, S.D.=0.78). Mothers reported on children's IC and EP concurrently and 12 months later, and concurrent teacher reports of EP were also collected. Factor analysis supported aggregation of mother and teacher‐reported EP and observed physical aggression into one measure of externalizing difficulties. Mothers reported lower IC for children with more externalizing difficulties, and the inverse relation between IC and externalizing difficulties strengthened over the toddler, preschool and kindergarten periods. Similar relations between IC and EP were observed 12 months later, and increases in IC also predicted reductions in EP over 1 year. These data demonstrate that the preschool years are a dynamic period of developmental change in the relations between IC and EP. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The relations of problem behavior status to children's negative emotionality, effortful control, and impulsivity: concurrent relations and prediction of change

The relations of children's internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors to their concurrent regulation, impulsivity (reactive undercontrol), anger, sadness, and fearfulness and these aspects of functioning 2 years prior were examined. Parents and teachers completed measures of children's (N = 185; ages 6 through 9 years) adjustment, negative emotionality, regulation, and behavior control; behavioral measures of regulation also were obtained. In general, both internalizing and externalizing problems were associated with negative emotionality. Externalizers were low in effortful regulation and high in impulsivity, whereas internalizers, compared with nondisordered children, were low in impulsivity but not effortful control. Moreover, indices of negative emotionality, regulation, and impulsivity with the level of the same variables 2 years before controlled predicted stability versus change in problem behavior status.     

Parenting and Preschoolers' Symptoms as a Function of Child Gender and SES

ABSTRACT

Improving parental discipline practices is a central target of behavioral parent training programs, but little research has examined how discipline varies as a function of gender. Based on the assumption that socialization practices might be related to gender differences in psychopathology, we examined relations between parenting and problem behaviors in children. We predicted that parents would be overreactive toward children displaying symptoms inconsistent with gender stereotypes and lax towards those with gender stereotype-consistent behavior. Parents of 112 preschool-aged children reported on their children's externalizing and internalizing symptoms, and their own lax and overreactive parenting. As hypothesized, internalizing symptoms in girls and externalizing symptoms in boys predicted lax parenting, while externalizing behaviors in girls and internalizing symptoms in boys were associated with overreactive parenting. Exploratory analyses suggest that relations differed somewhat as a function of sociocultural status, pointing to the need for future studies to consider social context.     

Attachment in foster children associated with caregivers' sensitivity and behavioral problems

This study focused on attachment of foster children by examining factors associated with attachment relationships of children raised from birth by the same parents. The sample included 61 children between 26 to 88 months of age and their foster caregivers. Attachment security and caregiver sensitivity were coded on the basis of, respectively, a home‐observation (Attachment Q‐Set) and a laboratory procedure (Three boxes). Other measures included caregiver reports of child externalizing and internalizing behavior problems and symptoms of attachment disorder, including inhibited and disinhibited attachment as well as secure base distortions. For a subsample of children, teacher ratings of behavior problems also were available. Foster parent sensitivity was positively associated with attachment security, but only if symptoms of disordered attachment were partialled out. Symptoms of inhibited and disinhibited attachment as well as secure base distortions were positively related to parent reports of externalizing and internalizing behavior problems whereas attachment security was negatively related to teacher reports of externalizing behavior problems. Attachment theoretical tenets appeared valid with foster parent–child relationships, except for children with symptoms of attachment disorder.     

童年中期受欺负与问题行为之关系: 一项两年纵向研究

摘要：采用同伴评价和教师评价对733名小学3年级儿童进行为期两年的追踪研究,通过结构方程模型,考察受欺负与两类问题行为的相互预测关系。结果发现：（1）受欺负与外化问题行为和内化问题行为呈显著正相关。（2）受欺负在两年之间呈现较高的稳定性;而外化问题行为和内化问题行为则表现出较低程度的稳定性。 （3）结构方程模型结果表明,三年级时的受欺负可以显著预测五年级时的外化问题行为,而三年级时的外化问题行为不能显著预测五年级时的受欺负;三年级时的内化问题行为可以显著预测五年级时的受欺负,而三年级时的受欺负不能显著预测五年级时的内化问题行为。在受欺负与问题行为的相互预测关系中,内化问题行为更有可能成为受欺负的触发因素,而外化问题行为则更有可能是对受欺负的回应。     

Executive functions and child problem behaviors are sensitive to family disruption: a study of children of mothers working overseas

Mothers in Sri Lanka are increasingly seeking overseas employment, resulting in disruption of the childcare environment. The present study was designed to evaluate the effects of maternal migration on executive function (EF) and behavior, thereby also contributing to the scientific understanding of environmental effects--or more specifically family effects--on children's neurocognitive functioning. A sample of 60 healthy 11-year-old children whose mothers had been working overseas for more than 1 year formed the study group, and a comparison group was recruited from the same schools. Evaluations were made twice over a 1-year interval with regard to the EF components inhibition and working memory as well as teacher ratings of internalizing and externalizing behavior. The children in the study group were found to have poorer EF and higher levels of externalizing behaviors. A composite score of inhibition partially mediated the group effect on externalizing behavior. Current home environment was assessed using the HOME scale, was poorer for the study group and was related to EF, but not to behavior problems. Keeping in mind the correlational nature of the present data, our results were discussed in relation to studies showing cognitive effects of stress.     

Cognitive Behavioral Principles Within Group Mentoring: A Randomized Pilot Study

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a group mentoring program that included components of empirically supported mentoring and cognitive behavioral techniques for children served at a community mental health center. Eighty-six 8- to 12-year-old children were randomly assigned to either group mentoring or a wait-list control group. Group mentoring significantly increased children's reported social problem-solving skills and decreased parent-reported child externalizing and internalizing behavior problems after controlling for other concurrent mental health services. Attrition from the group mentoring program was notably low (7%) for children. The integration of a cognitive behavioral group mentoring program into children's existing community mental health services may result in additional reductions in externalizing and internalizing behavior problems.     

Parentification,Stress, and Problem Behavior of Adolescents who have a Parent with Mental Health Problems

When adolescents live with a parent with mental illness, they often partly take over the parental role. Little is known about the consequences of this so‐called parentification on the adolescents' internalizing and externalizing problems. This survey study examined this effect cross‐sectionally and longitudinally in a sample of 118 adolescents living with a parent suffering from mental health problems. In addition, the study examined a possible indirect effect via perceived stress. Path analyses were used to examine the direct associations between parentification and problem behavior as well as the indirect relations via perceived stress. The results showed that parentification was associated with both internalizing and externalizing problems cross‐sectionally, but it predicted only internalizing problems 1 year later. An indirect effect of parentification on adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems via perceived stress was found, albeit only cross‐sectionally. These findings imply that parentification can be stressful for adolescents who live with a parent with mental health problems, and that a greater awareness of parentification is needed to prevent adolescents from developing internalizing problems.     

Six-year stability of parent-reported problem behavior in an epidemiological sample

An epidemiological sample of 936 Dutch children originally aged 4–11 years was assessed at 2-year intervals over a 6-year period. Parents completed the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) on all four occasions. Stability coefficients computed for eight CBCL syndromes, Internalizing and Externalizing dimensions, and total problems revealed considerable long-term stability. There was no significant difference in the 6-year stability of internalizing vs. externalizing scores. This finding was at odds with reports of considerably lower stability of internalizing behavior, and was consistent with findings suggesting that the stability of internalizing problems should not be underestimated. The magnitude and specificity of the long-term stability of internalizing and externalizing scores lends support to the validity of these behavioral dimensions as tapped by the CBCL. No significant sex or age differences in the stability of problem behaviors were found.     

Diagnostic importance of combined parent and teacher ratings on the Revised Behavior Problem Checklist

The Revised Behavior Problem Checklist (RBPC) was completed by parents and teachers for 105 child psychiatry outpatient boys aged 6 to 12 years. In addition, DSM-III diagnoses were determined independent of checklist results, and the children were divided into major diagnostic groups of externalizing, internalizing, and mixed disorders. Combined parent and teacher ratings proved more effective than separate ratings in distinguishing the externalizing and mixed groups from the internalizing group on the RBPC externalizing factors. The overall classification of individual boys with discriminant function analysis increased from 72% to 83% when the ratings of both parents, rather than one parent, were combined with teacher ratings. Enhancing diagnostic accuracy of type of psychiatric disorder by using combined parent and teacher behavior checklist ratings is discussed.     

Childhood Temperament and Family Environment as Predictors of Internalizing and Externalizing Trajectories From Ages 5 to 17

Childhood temperament and family environment have been shown to predict internalizing and externalizing behavior; however, less is known about how temperament and family environment interact to predict changes in problem behavior. We conducted latent growth curve modeling on a sample assessed at ages 5, 7, 10, 14, and 17 (N = 337). Externalizing behavior decreased over time for both sexes, and internalizing behavior increased over time for girls only. Two childhood variables (fear/shyness and maternal depression) predicted boys' and girls' age-17 internalizing behavior, harsh discipline uniquely predicted boys' age-17 internalizing behavior, and maternal depression and lower family income uniquely predicted increases in girls' internalizing behavior. For externalizing behavior, an array of temperament, family environment, and Temperament × Family Environment variables predicted age-17 behavior for both sexes. Sex differences were present in the prediction of externalizing slopes, with maternal depression predicting increases in boys' externalizing behavior only when impulsivity was low, and harsh discipline predicting increases in girls' externalizing behavior only when impulsivity was high or when fear/shyness was low.     

父母心理控制与儿童自我控制和问题行为:有中介的调节模型

选取343名儿童及其家长为被试考察父母心理控制对儿童问题行为的影响及其机制。结果:(1)心理控制正向预测儿童的内外化问题行为且这种影响受父母自主支持的调节;(2)父母自主支持的调节作用部分通过情绪控制影响儿童内外化问题行为,部分通过抑制控制影响儿童外化问题行为。结论:心理控制对儿童问题行为的影响受自主支持的调节,儿童自我控制能力在其中起部分中介作用。