Speech competence of children vulnerable to psychopathology

Verbal productivity and cohesion and reference patterns of children of schizophrenics (N=23), unipolars (N=43), bipolars (N=38), and normals (N=53) were assessed using the Rochester and Martin (1979) evaluation system. Children of all offspring groups could be discriminated from one another, with children of schizophrenics showing the most deviant speech performance across all dependent measures. Children of schizophrenics were less verbally productive and had poorer patterns of cohesion between ideas than children of normals. In addition, they produced more unclear and ambiguous references to previously mentioned ideas than did children of normals. The consistency of deviance and performance on specific dependent variables in these children at risk for schizophrenia was similar to the speech performance of thought-disordered schizophrenics. Possible explanations for these similarities were discussed and evaluated.This research was supported by grant number MH21145 from the National Institute of Mental Health and by funds from the William T. Grant Foundation. The authors would like to thank Lina Jandorf for her invaluable assistance in data collection and scoring.     

Mueller-Lyer illusion and size estimation performance in schizophrenics compared to normal controls

A size estimation (SE) paradigm and the Mueller-Lyer (ML) illusion were used to examine perceptual disturbances in schizophrenics. 35 reliably diagnosed (DSM III-R) schizophrenics were compared to 20 subjects with no history of psychiatric illness. Perceptual distortions found in previous studies of schizophrenics were only to a certain extent confirmed in the present results. More overestimators were found among the schizophrenics than among the normals on the SE task. The schizophrenics, first of all the chronic patients, also proved to be more prone to the Mueller-Lyer illusion. A reason why the very clear differences between schizophrenics and normals found in previous examinations were not confirmed in the present study, might be that a reliable diagnostic instrument was for the first time used in this kind of study.     

Schizophrenic reactions in the Serial Spiral After-Effect Test

A group of 52 schizophrenics, 13 neurotics and 30 normals were studied by means of the Serial Spiral After-Effect Test. Schizophrenics with classical overt symptoms showed significantly higher values compared to neurotics, normals and latent schizophrenics on the residual variability in ten consecutive durations of the after-effect, i.e. the total variability minus the variability ascribable to linear change. Significant correlations were obtained between residnal variability in the Serial Spiral After-Effect Test and psychosis, as assessed by a psychiatric rating scale for the schizophrenics with classical overt symptoms, when the mean level in the Serial Spiral After-Effect Test was checked.     

Memory in schizophrenia and affective disorders*

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the stability of memory and information processing in schizophrenics and affectively disturbed patients. Twenty-two schizophrenics, eight affectives and 14 normal controls were tested twice, with an interval of approximately one year. Results showed that normals performed better than schizophrenics and affectively disturbed patients on almost all of the cognitive measures. The differences reached a level of significance on a reaction time test, a vigilance task and a long-term memory task. The only measure where the difference did not reach a level of significance was on a short-term memory test. Groups' performance to some extent changed over time on most of the measures, but the changes were not significantly different for different groups.     

Peer evaluations of the competence of children vulnerable to psychopathology

Peer evaluations of the behavior of 75 children of schizophrenic mothers, 57 children of depressed mothers, and 153 controls were collected using the Pupil Evaluation Inventory. The children, both boys and girls, were in grades 2 through 9. Both male and female children of schizophrenics were viewed more deviantly than controls on Aggression and Unhappiness-Withdrawal factors. Only the female children of schizophrenics were viewed as less likable than controls. In general, children of schizophrenics did not differ from children of depressives. The exception was the older daughters of schizophrenics, who were rated as more deviant than members of both the remaining groups.This research was supported by grant MH 21145 from the National Institute of Mental Health and by funds from the William T. Grant Foundation.     

ABSTRACTS

This is one of a series of research studies comparing parents and siblings of 30 schizophrenics with 30 neurotics. The parents of schizophrenics had a greater incidence of schizophrenia, personality disorders, and borderline disorders than did the normals. The siblings of the schizophrenics showed more varied disturbance than the parents. Of 30 schizophrenic families, 14 were "schizmatic" and 7 were "skewed"; 10 families were chaotic, 11 were rigid, 6 showed both patterns, and three were atypical. The families from which schizophrenics come are usually disturbed both genetically and environmentally.     

Communication deviances in parents of schizophrenics

In an attempt to make a multimethod assessment of communication deviance in parents of schizophrenics, a communication conflict situation (CCS) and the TAT were used to obtain qualitative and quantitative measures of communication for a sample of 50 parental couples, 21 of which were parents of schizophrenics, 9 were parents of nonpsychotic psychiatric patients, and 20 were parents of normals. The results were a general confirmation of earlier reports that communication deviance is an outstanding characteristic in families with a schizophrenic offspring. The most important finding, however, was that parents of paranoid and nonparanoid schizophrenics score very differently on a majority of the communication variables. Parents of nonparanoid schizophrenics form one extreme on a continuum of communication deviance, and parents of paranoid schizophrenics and normals the other. Egocentrism, measured by CCS, turned out to be the single qualitative variable with best discriminating power across all groups.     

Responses of Blind and Seeing Adolescents to a Neurotic Inventory

In the present study hypotheses derived from developmental-psychoanalytic and role theories of sex-role identification were tested in father-dominant and mother-dominant schizophrenic and normally functioning adult male Ss (n = 15 in each group). Parental dominance and sex-role identification were measured by a battery of traditional paper-and-pencil tests. It was found that (a) father-dominant and mother-dominant schizophrenics scored significantly lower (p < .01) than their respective normally functioning counterparts; (b) no significant differences existed between father-dominant and mother-dominant schizophrenics; and (c) irrespective of parental dominance, schizophrenics scored significantly lower (p < .01) than normally functioning Ss in regard to sex-role identification. These findings were interpreted to support a psychodynamic theory of schizophrenia emphasizing the importance of dependence and security needs, while they failed to support role-theory interpretations of the process of sex-role identification.     

Two-flash threshold, sensitivity and β in normal subjects and schizophrenics

Two-flash threshold, response criterion, and sensitivity (defined by the slope of the psychophysical ogive), were examined in schizophrenics and in normals under three conditions--a base-line condition, and during and after continuous white noise. Schizophrenics were subdivided into four groups on the basis of whether or not they exhibited paranoid symptomatology and electrodermal orienting responses. In general schizophrenics had more lenient two-flash response criteria than normal subjects. In the base-line condition schizophrenics with orienting responses had lower two-flash thresholds than those without orienting responses. Paranoid schizophrenics had more lenient criteria than non-paranoid schizophrenics and lower sensitivity than the non-paranoid group with orienting responses. Differential group effects were obtained during and after noise, especially with regard to sensitivity.     

Discriminant validity of the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List - revised

Four groups of patients (depressives, schizophrenics, substance dependents and abusers), a miscellaneous group of other patients, and a group of matched normals from a general population sample were compared on the scales of the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List - Revised (MAACL-R). All scales showed highly significant differentiation among the groups. An index consisting of Depression minus Positive Affect scales was particularly effective in discriminating between depressive and other groups. A discriminant function analysis showed that the depressive could be distinguished from other patient groups and normals with an accuracy of 72% correct. The normals could be distinguished from all of the patient groups with a 60% accuracy, and 87% if the substance abuser group is ignored. The discriminant validity among the nondepressive patient groups was not nearly as good.     

Emotions as wishes and beliefs

Emotions can be assessed by means of different diagnostic methods, for example, by self-report instruments, ratings of facial expressions, or by projective techniques. This study presents an alternative approach: a computerized investigation of verbally expressed emotions by means of the Affective Dictionary Ulm (ADU; Dahl, H?lzer, & Berry, 1992), which was applied to responses in the Holtzman Inkblot Technique (HIT; Holtzman, 1988; Holtzman, Thorpe, Swartz, & Herron, 1961). A normal group (n = 30), patients with neurotic disorders (n = 30), borderline patients (n = 30), acute schizophrenics (n = 25), and chronic schizophrenics (n = 25) were compared in regard to verbally expressed emotions. According to the results, patients with neurotic disorders did not differ from the normal group in regard to verbally expressed emotions. Borderline patients expressed fear and emotions in general significantly more frequently than all other diagnostic groups. Furthermore, borderline patients differed in regard to specific emotions from patients with neurotic disorders, acute schizophrenics, and chronic schizophrenics. Acute schizophrenics did not differ from the normal group in regard to the expression of emotions, whereas chronic schizophrenics expressed anger, fear, anxiety, and emotions in general significantly less frequently than normals. By a discriminant analysis using verbally expressed emotions as predictors of the diagnosis, hit rates between 87% and 100% could be achieved. Furthermore, hypotheses about correlations between emotions on the one hand and internalized primitive object relations and bizarre-idiosyncratic thinking were tested empirically. Significant correlations could be demonstrated. These results support the validity of assessing emotions through a lexical content analysis of the HIT by use of the ADU.     

Correlates of the MMPI–A Psychopathology Five (PSY–5) Facet Scales in an Adolescent Inpatient Sample

The Bender-Gestalt was given following the Canter Background Interference Procedure (BIP) to 40 schizophrenics divided into paranoid-nonparanoid and process-reactive sub-categories. Nonparanoids performed significantly poorer under BIP conditions than under standard procedure. Paranoids performed equally well under both conditions. Comparison with Canter's brain-damaged Ss indicated that process nonparanoid schizophrenics resemble brain-damaged Ss using this procedure.     

Effect of depression on processing interactions in group psychotherapy

Two studies were conducted to investigate the possibility of individual differences in the ability of inpatients to process interactions in group psychotherapy. The first was a pilot study conducted on groups of major depressive patients and matched normal subjects. Subjects were asked to give process comments after viewing simulations of typical group therapy interactions. These comments were later rated on the extent to which they reflected process qualities and accuracy. These data led to a more rigorous and extensive study that included more appropriate control groups as well as measures of potential confounding factors, such as simulation realism, verbal ability, and interaction comprehension. Results indicated that major depressives suffer from deficits in the ability to process group interactions, relative to three types of control groups, including normals. These differences in processing were not significantly positively correlated with any of the potential confounding factors. The implications for understanding interactional processing and group psychotherapy are discussed.     

A deficit of primary affective facial expression independent of bucco-facial dyspraxia in chronic schizophrenics

Abstract

Chronic schizophrenics are known to manifest a deficit of categorisation and recognition of primary emotional facial expression despite intact recognition of face identity. An equivalent deficit of expression of the same primary facial emotions in schizophrenics has not been clearly established. Twenty chronic hospitalised schizophrenics and 20 normals were therefore tested on tasks of facial emotional expression upon verbal command, of facial emotional expression imitation, and of non-affective bucco-facial praxic imitation. Results indicate that chronic schizophrenics do manifest a deficit of facial emotion expression which can best be explained by task parameters, such as verbal cueing of emotions, perceptual recognition, and bucco-facial dyspraxia in decreasing order of importance. The deficit does not appear to result from neuroleptic or anticholinergic medication nor length of hospitalisation or disease.     

Differentiating Psychotic Patients From Nonpsychotic Patients With the MMPI–2 and Rorschach

Rorschach responses of 36 process and 23 reactive schizophrenics have been evaluated for presence of primary and secondary process thinking, and for oral, anal, sex, aggression, and anxiety content. Responses of the process schizophrenics involved more primary process than secondary process thought, whereas the reactive schizophrenics' responses showed more secondary than primary process thinking. A linear trend, parallel for both groups, was noted with regard to frequency of content responses, such that anxiety was greater than aggression, which was greater than oral, which was greater than sex and in turn was greater than anal. In both groups oral content was least invaded by primary process thinking, the remaining categories tended to cluster.     

Some aspects of verbal conditioning in psychiatric patients

Using a modification of a verbal conditioning technique reported by Tafiel (1955) it was found that only schizophrenics and normals showed evidence of conditioning, neurotics and depressives showing changes not differing from chance. There was greater evidence of conditioning among Ss aware of the contingency between response and reinforcement, and some tentative evidence for relationships of anxiety and extraversion with verbal conditioning.     

Schizophrenia and automatic processing: an exploratory study

This study deals with the schizophrenic deficit as one of automatic processing. To test the idea, a special experimental task was designed on which 21 schizophrenics, 21 depressives, and 21 normal subjects had to complete a series of simple geometric figures. When the subjects had thoroughly learned this activity, another information source, a brief story, was introduced, and the subjects had to pay attention to the story while they did the task. Two dependent variables were considered, execution time and performance. There were no differences among the three groups in the first experimental condition; but in the second condition, when the distractor was introduced, schizophrenics needed more time to do the task and their performance was noticeably worse than those of both normals and depressives. This outcome is explained in terms of a failure in the internal mechanisms which regulate the automatic, parallel, and unconscious processing.     

Body Image Disturbance in Schizophrenia: A Study of Arms and Feet

This study investigated the significance of omitting arms/hands and legs/feet on the Draw-A-Person Test (DAP) in 128 hospitalized schizophrenic and 104 normally functioning adult males. The DAP was administered according to Machover's instructions, and the data were analyzed by chi-square tests. It was found that schizophrenics demonstrated significantly more omissions of arms/hands and legs/feet than the normals. These findings were interpreted to indicate body image disturbance in schizophrenia and were related to Schilder's and Federn's theories of the disorder emphasizing an impairment of ego boundaries.     

Multivariate discriminant analysis of EEG power spectra in acute schizophrenic patients and healthy probands

The electroencephalogram (EEG) during information processing is influenced by specific changes in brain electrical activity. Based on the theory of a disturbed information processing in schizophrenics we analysed auditory stimulus induced EEG changes by Fast Fourier Transformation. The most important of the significant stimulation dependent EEG power changes were measured in the 0.5-3.5 Hz and 10-13.5 Hz frequency bands in the left parietal lead. In a multivariate analysis the separation of the subjects examined into acute schizophrenics and normals was incorrect in only 21% of the cases (resubstitution rate): using the pi-method an error of 31% was estimated.     

Psychoanalytic Explorations in Art by Ernst Kris

A review of 43 controlled studies was conducted which evaluated the effectiveness of group therapy for schizophrenics. Group therapy was judged to be an effective modality of treatment for schizophrenics in 67 percent of the inpatient studies. It was especially useful in groups lasting more than three months. Therapy groups were effective for schizophrenics in 80 percent of the outpatient studies. Interaction-oriented approaches were more effective than insight-oriented approaches, which were found to be harmful for some schizophrenics.