Formal characteristics of Thematic Apperception Test stories as indices of emotional disturbance in children

Formal characteristics of stories told about picture cards from the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) were defined as reflecting the storyteller's ability to accomplish the task and were distinguished from content that expresses the unique concerns of the individual. It was argued that increased emphasis on formal aspects of TAT responses is warranted, because these characteristics can be determined more objectively and are more suitable for direct group comparison. Therefore, the variables included in our study consisted of an integration and expansion of formal characteristics previously developed with adults, which showed promise in differentiating disturbed and normal groups of children. Based on these formal characteristics of TAT stories, 95% of the comparison group members and 85% of the disturbed group members were correctly classified. Emotionally disturbed boys (n = 40) differed from a comparison group (n = 40) on seven formal scoring categories which were hypothesized to differentiate the groups.     

Formal Characteristics of Thematic Apperception Test Stories as Indices of Emotional Disturbance in Children

Formal characteristics of stories told about picture cards from the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) were defined as reflecting the storyteller's ability to accomplish the task and were distinguished from content that expresses the unique concerns of the individual. It was argued that increased emphasis on formal aspects of TAT responses is warranted, because these characteristics can be determined more objectively and are more suitable for direct group comparison. Therefore, the variables included in our study consisted of an integration and expansion of formal characteristics previously developed with adults, which showed promise in differentiating disturbed and normal groups of children. Based on these formal characteristics of TAT stories, 95% of the comparison group members and 85% of the disturbed group members were correctly classified. Emotionally disturbed boys (n = 40) differed from a comparison group (n = 40) on seven formal scoring categories which were hypothesized to differentiate the groups.     

A Basic TAT Set

The 10 TAT cards judged most valuable for a basic test set were selected by a total of 170 highly experienced psychologists. The judges' choices, separately determined for adults and children, were very consistent. For example, 86.7% of judges in the adult series and 92.5% of judges in the child series listed Picture 1 (Boy-Violin) within their first 10 choices. Rankings of the 10 most frequently chosen cards were closely parallel in the adult and child series. Utilizing these findings a recommended Basic TAT set of eight cards (Pictures 1, 2, 3BM, 4, 6BM, 7BM, 13MF, 8BM) is proposed to enhance development of the TAT for clinical research and teaching purposes.     

Gender bias on the Thematic Apperception Test

Thirty male and 30 female college students generated stories to a set of nine Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) cards with either male or female stimulus characters. The Fine scoring system was factor analyzed to produce seven factor clusters plus three outcome variables. Multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed a main effect for type of card. The female TAT cards elicited significantly more responses on the General Concerns scale than did the male TAT cards. A main effect for subject gender showed the females gave more responses than males on the Interpersonal Relations scale. No differences were found on the outcome variables.     

Gender Bias on the Thematic Apperception Test

Thirty male and 30 female college students generated stories to a set of nine Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) cards with either male or female stimulus characters. The Fine scoring system was factor analyzed to produce seven factor clusters plus three outcome variables. Multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed a main effect for type of card. The female TAT cards elicited significantly more responses on the General Concerns scale than did the male TAT cards. A main effect for subject gender showed the females gave more responses than males on the Interpersonal Relations scale. No differences were found on the outcome variables.     

Personal problem-solving system for scoring TAT responses: preliminary validity and reliability data

Personal problem solving has emerged as an important construct in the cognitive-behavioral literature, yet there is a lack of clinically useful, performance-based measures practitioners can use to assess the personal problem-solving skills of their clients. Two studies evaluated the validity and reliability of a scoring system for measuring personal problem-solving processes via the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT; Morgan & Murray, 1935). In Experiment 1, undergraduate students (N = 87) completed two measures of personal problem solving, as well as three TAT cards, which were scored using the Personal Problem-Solving System (PPSS; Renan, 1990). In Experiment 2, an additional group of undergraduates (N = 56) responded to three TAT cards on two separate occasions and also completed a different measure of personal problem solving. Results from both studies supported the use of the PPSS for scoring TAT responses to assess personal problem-solving processes. Suggestions for future research are highlighted.     

Personal problem-solving scoring of the TAT: sensitivity to training

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT; Murray, 1943) is one of the most frequently taught and administered projective instruments in the United States. Nevertheless, formal scoring systems are not often used when evaluating story responses; thus, the reliability and validity of response interpretations remain controversial. The sensitivity-to-training of a procedure that uses the TAT to assess personal problem-solving skills, namely the Personal Problem-Solving System (PPSS; Ronan, 1990), was evaluated. In Experiment 1, undergraduate students received either detailed (n = 30) or minimal (n = 29) training in the problem-solving skill of generating alternative solutions to personal problems and subsequently wrote responses to three TAT cards. In Experiment 2, subjects received either detailed (n = 22) or minimal (n = 22) training in a utility model of decision making and thereafter responded to the same three TAT cards. Subjects who received detailed training, when compared to their minimally trained counterparts, reported an increase in their knowledge of the relevant problem-solving skill, and this increased knowledge influenced their responses to the TAT cards as measured by the PPSS scores. Implications for the construct validity of the PPSS are discussed.     

What Is the TAT? A Review of Ten Years of Research

Research using the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is generally pessimistic in regard to its validity and reliability. One reason for this is the wide range of stimulus materials accepted under the title of TAT. Stimulus cards are so varied that generalization from one study to another or to clinical practice is hardly possible. In this study, all articles indexed under TAT in Psychological Abstracts for a 10-year period were examined. When possible to make this determination, cards were listed in order of usage. Suggestions for future research are given.     

Personal Problem-Solving Scoring of the TAT: Sensitivity to Training

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT; Murray, 1943) is one of the most frequently taught and administered projective instruments in the United States. Nevertheless, formal scoring systems are not often used when evaluating story responses; thus, the reliability and validity of response interpretations remain controversial. The sensitivity-to-training of a procedure that uses the TAT to assess personal problem-solving skills, namely the Personal Problem-Solving System (PPSS; Ronan, 1990), was evaluated. In Experiment 1, undergraduate students received either detailed (n = 30) or minimal (n = 29) training in the problem-solving skill of generating alternative solutions to personal problems and subsequently wrote responses to three TAT cards. In Experiment 2, subjects received either detailed (n = 22) or minimal (n = 22) training in a utility model of decision making and thereafter responded to the same three TAT cards. Subjects who received detailed training, when compared to their minimally trained counterparts, reported an increase in their knowledge of the relevant problem-solving skill, and this increased knowledge influenced their responses to the TAT cards as measured by the PPSS scores. Implications for the construct validity of the PPSS are discussed.     

Patterns of practice with the TAT in juvenile forensic settings

Psychologists in juvenile forensic psychological clinics were surveyed about usage of the TAT. A clear majority uses the TAT as part of their assessment battery, the majority using between six and ten cards. Administration and scoring methods were examined. Selection of cards was harmonious with prior research on theme productivity. Many respondents were found not to use the TAT because of time constraints, a finding discussed in terms of appropriate standards of care. Additional research needs to establish representative as well as expected standards of ethical practice for the TAT among general clinical groups, both adult and adolescent.     

Quantitative studies of responses elicited by selected TAT cards

Quantitative differences in subjects' responses to selected TAT cards were studied. 70 white, female college students wrote stories in response to TAT Cards 1, 2, 3BM, 12M, and 13MF. Stories were scored for several measures of drive intensity, defensive pattern, and object relational pattern. On all measures, the several cards were associated with different patterns of response. The use of the pattern of scores on several cards (as opposed to aggregate measures summing responses to several cards) for exploration of the ebb and flow of various aspects of intrapsychic functioning is discussed.     

Origin and history of the "Series B" and "Series C" TAT pictures

I present the origin and history of the "Series B" and "Series C" pictures of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT; White, Sanford, Murray, & Bellak, 1941; Clark, 1944). I fill in the evolutionary gap between the "Series A" pictures (W. G. Morgan, 2002) and the 1943 "Series D" (W. G. Morgan, 1995, 1999). Here one can observe which cards were retained from series to series, what new cards were experimentally introduced, and which cards were resurrected after a period of disuse. It would seem that only the world shattering events of WWII were enough to halt this evolution and freeze the content of the TAT at the time of Murray's departure from the Harvard Psychological Clinic to join the Office of Strategic Services.     

A Quantitative Approach to Affective Symbolism In Rorschach Responses

I present the origin and history of the "Series B" and "Series C" pictures of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT; White, Sanford, Murray, &; Bellak, 1941; Clark, 1944). I fill in the evolutionary gap between the "Series A" pictures (W. G. Morgan, 2002) and the 1943 "Series D" (W. G. Morgan, 1995, 1999). Here one can observe which cards were retained from series to series, what new cards were experimentally introduced, and which cards were resurrected after a period of disuse. It would seem that only the world shattering events of WWII were enough to halt this evolution and freeze the content of the TAT at the time of Murray's departure from the Harvard Psychological Clinic to join the Office of Strategic Services.     

Fantasy as a medium for the reduction of trait versus state aggression

In the first phase of an experiment reducing hostility through fantasy, 203 first and second-year high school students completed a daydreaming scale, Rotter ISB, and a sociometric scale designed to ascertain which of their peers behave aggressively. The students of the upper and lower quarters of the daydreaming scale were classified as high and low fantasy, and as aggressive or nonaggressive subjects. The second phase, two weeks later, consisted of 94 subjects forming three groups: a trait aggressive group, a nonaggressive control group, and a group of nonaggressive subjects experimentally manipulated for aggression. Half of the subjects composed stories to four high-cue aggressive TAT cards; the other half read neutral stories. All the subjects then again completed the Rotter ISB which was scored for aggression. Analysis of covariance of the scores indicated that a reduction in hostility occurred only for the group experimentally aroused to aggression in the TAT condition. The scores of the trait-aggressive subjects, tested in a before-after analysis, showed an increase in their hostility level. Fantasy capacity did not influence the scores.     

Multidimensional scaling of the TAT and the measurement of achievement motivation

Subjects rated all pairs of eight TAT cards and ten Rorschach cards for similarity. They were also scored for n-Ach using imagery scoring on stories to TAT cards. Two similarity dimensions were found for the TAT stimuli, identified as number of persons and degree of strong affect. Those high and low on need for achievement for both sexes differed significantly on degree of salience afforded to each dimension, those high weighting the affect dimension more, and those low the person dimension more. Dimensions of the Rorschach found by Wainer et al. (1976) were replicated, but did not discriminate individuals on need for achievement. The results are discussed in terms of the interpretation of the dimensions, the possible relationship of affect to achievement motivation, and the possible practical implications for the use and measurement properties of projective tests.     

Index: Contents of Volume 35 (1971)

Subjects rated all pairs of eight TAT cards and ten Rorschach cards for similarity. They were also scored for n-Ach using imagery scoring on stories to TAT cards. Two similarity dimensions were found for the TAT stimuli, identified as number of persons and degree of strong affect. Those high and low on need for achievement for both sexes differed significantly on degree of salience afforded to each dimension, those high weighting the affect dimension more, and those low the person dimension more. Dimensions of the Rorschach found by Wainer et al. (1976) were replicated, but did not discriminate individuals on need for achievement. The results are discussed in terms of the interpretation of the dimensions, the possible relationship of affect to achievement motivation, and the possible practical implications for the use and measurement properties of projective tests.     

Test Sophistication and Faking in the TAT Situation

This study investigated the effects of conscious altering of response (faking) and test sophistication on TAT performance. Thirty-six naive undergraduates and 36 TAT-sophisticated graduate students and clinicians wrote stories to all 20 TAT cards under one of two conditions: standard, and instructions to “fake” hostility. The four groups were then compared by Analysis of Variance on a number of quantitative response measures. Effects of the two experimental variables, sophistication and faking, varied with the response measure, but, in general, faking instructions led to response changes, and sophisticated subjects performed differently than naive ones. Some sex differences were also apparent. It was concluded that sophistication is a factor in how a subject fakes, the sophisticated subjects generally doing a better job of it. The implications for the effect of stimulus pull were discussed and it was concluded that the pull value of the stimulus is not affected by a peripheral response set but is affected by sophistication.     

Sex Differences,Sex Roles,and Projection on the TAT: Matching Stimulus to Examinee Gender

We examined the assumption that on the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) examinees identify more with stimulus characters of the same sex as themselves and therefore produce more projective material when tested with these gender matched cards. Repeated measures analyses of variance and t tests showed no increase in projection as a result of matching gender or sex role of subject to card stimulus. Results do not support the clinical utility of the separate male and female sets of TAT cards.     

Is hostility linked with affiliation among males and with achievement among females? A critique of Pollak and Gilligan

This investigation attempted to replicate and to clarify methodologically an investigation by Pollak and Gilligan (1982). Those investigators reported sex differences in violence imagery to Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) pictures depicting affiliation and achievement situations. Pollak and Gilligan concluded that men perceive danger in situations of affiliation whereas women perceive danger in situations of achievement. It was demonstrated in the present study that Pollak and Gilligan incorrectly classified TAT cards into motivational categories, which may have resulted in incorrect inferences. In addition, their findings could not be replicated when using four different systems for classifying TAT cards into motivational categories. Other potential sources of error in their research, including a restrictive scoring scheme for hostility, unusual instructions, and failure to control for sex role in the TAT pictures, did not influence the pattern of results.