Mental rotation performance in primary school age children: Are there gender differences in chronometric tests?

In contrast to the well documented male advantage in psychometric mental rotation tests, gender differences in chronometric experimental designs are still under dispute. Therefore, a systematic investigation of gender differences in mental rotation performance in primary-school children is presented in this paper. A chronometric mental rotation task was used to test 449 second and fourth graders. The children were tested in three separate groups each with different stimulus material (animal drawings, letters, or cube figures). The results show that chronometric mental rotation tasks with cube figures – even rotated in picture plane only – were too difficult for children in both age groups. Further analyses with animal drawings and letters as stimuli revealed an overall gender difference in response time (RT) favoring males, an increasing RT with increasing angular disparity for all children, and faster RTs for fourth graders compared to second graders. This is the first study which has shown consistent gender differences in chronometric mental rotation with primary school aged children regarding reaction time and accuracy while considering appropriate stimuli.     

‘In fairy tales fairies can disappear’: Children's reasoning about the characteristics of humans and fantasy figures

Two studies assessed whether children share with adults a concept of fantasy figures as entities that violate causal principles. Inferences about the characteristics of humans and fantasy figures were elicited with a forced‐choice questionnaire. Items from the biological, psychological, and physical domains pitted possible against impossible abilities; social domain items pitted conventional against unconventional behaviours. Older children (6–9 years) and adults attributed few non‐human characteristics from any domain to humans and attributed more impossible than unconventional characteristics to fantasy figures. Younger children (3–5 years) attributed fewer non‐human characteristics to humans than to fantasy figures, but attributed similar patterns of impossible and unconventional characteristics to humans and fantasy figures. Results are discussed in terms of cognitive changes between 3–5 and 6–9 years, and between 6–9 years and adulthood, that promote awareness that impossible abilities are uniquely associated with fantasy.     

Peck tracking: a method for localizing critical features within complex pictures for pigeons

The pigeon is a standard animal in comparative psychology and is frequently used to investigate visuocognitive functions. Nonetheless, the strategies that pigeons use to discriminate complex visual stimuli remain a difficult area of study. In search of a reliable method to identify features that control the discrimination behaviour, pecking location was tracked using touch screen technology in a people-absent/people-present discrimination task. The correct stimuli contained human figures anywhere on the picture, but the birds were not required to peck on that part. However, the stimuli were designed in a way that only the human figures contained distinguishing information. All pigeons focused their pecks on a subarea of the distinctive human figures, namely the heads. Removal of the heads significantly impaired performance, while removal of other distinctive parts did not. Thus, peck tracking reveals the location within a complex visual stimulus that controls discrimination behaviour, and might be a valuable tool to reveal the strategies pigeons apply in visual discrimination tasks.     

Symmetry brings an impression of familiarity but does not improve recognition memory

Studies have shown that symmetric stimuli are recognized better than asymmetric stimuli but evidence suggests that this advantage may result from a familiarity bias induced by symmetry. We used a classic episodic memory paradigm to test this bias and see if it truly accounts for the symmetry advantage. Subjects first encoded symmetric and asymmetric figures. During a subsequent recognition phase, they discriminated the encoded (old) figures from new intermixed figures. The recognition rate of old figures was higher with symmetric figures than asymmetric figures. However, the tendency to falsely recognize new figures was also higher when they were symmetric, meaning that the higher recognition rate for symmetric figures was artificially inflated by a response bias. Three other experiments further tested this finding and examined the influence of some variables (rotation in virtual 3D space, stimulus meaningfulness, and redundancy of information) on the bias. A fifth experiment with photo stimuli confirmed that the response bias also applies to objects that we regularly encounter in everyday life. In conclusion, our results show that symmetry does not enhance mnemonic processes but instead induces a response bias leading individuals to judge such stimuli as having been seen.     

Switching from approach to withdrawal is easier than vice versa

The preparedness theory of classical conditioning proposed by Seligman (1970, 1971) has been applied extensively over the past 40 years to explain the nature and “source” of human fear and phobias. In this review we examine the formative studies that tested the four defining characteristics of prepared learning with animal fear-relevant stimuli (typically snakes and spiders) and consider claims that fear of social stimuli, such as angry faces, or faces of racial out-group members, may also be acquired utilising the same preferential learning mechanism. Exposition of critical differences between fear learning to animal and social stimuli suggests that a single account cannot adequately explain fear learning with animal and social stimuli. We demonstrate that fear conditioned to social stimuli is less robust than fear conditioned to animal stimuli as it is susceptible to cognitive influence and propose that it may instead reflect on negative stereotypes and social norms. Thus, a theoretical model that can accommodate the influence of both biological and cultural factors is likely to have broader utility in the explanation of fear and avoidance responses than accounts based on a single mechanism.     

Selective changes of sensitivity after adaptation to simple geometrical figures

Using simple geometrical figures, the effect of adaptation upon sensitivity to figures of the same or different form was investigated. The adapting stimuli (blank white field, contour triangles, or circles) were presented for 1, 5, 30, or 60 sec. The test stimuli were always triangles, presented for a short exposure time at .1, .2, .4, .8, and 1.2 sec after the offset of the adapting pattern. The threshold duration of the test stimuli was measured. It was found that both adapting patterns raised the threshold above that measured for adaptation with the blank white field. But it wss only for the pair “adapting triangles-test triangles” that an increase of the time of adaptation beyond 5 sec resulted in an increase of this effect. This suggests that selective lowering in sensitivity during prolonged viewing of some figures may develop. The effect disappeared after about 1.2 sec following an exponential curve.     

"Mirror-image" errors without mirror-image stimuli

Recent work has indicated that discrimination between upright and inverted stimuli is difficult when stimuli are one above the other, and discrimination between stimuli turned left and right is difficult when stimuli are side by side. That is, errors are frequent under conditions in which mirror-image confusions can be made. Young children were given a task requiring the matching of orientation of (a) identical realistic figures that could form mirror images of each other or (b) nonidentical realistic figures that could not form mirror images. The same pattern of errors appeared for the identical and nonidentical figures, indicating that the errors are not mirror-image confusions. It is argued that the errors are due to a strategy of matching analogous parts of the two figures.     

Is there a developmental trend from integrality to separability in perception?

Some previous literature suggests that young children perceive in an integral, holistic fashion stimuli that older children perceive in a separable, dimensionalized mode. A prediction from a strong form of this position is that younger children actually may perform more rapidly a speeded classification task that requires “condensation” than a task that requires “filtering” (if the similarity relations among the wholes favor the former task). Older children should be able to take advantage of the simple unidimensional basis of the filtering task and thus accomplish it much more rapidly than the condensation task. The results are only partially in accord with the predictions. Kindergarteners (5 years of age), on size-and-brightness stimuli, show no speed advantage on either task, while second (8 years) and fifth (11 years) graders clearly show more rapid filtering. Therefore, the developmental hypothesis is in need of some revision and elaboration. Some stimuli are less separable for younger than for older children, but even five year olds can access their dimensional structure under some conditions.     

The influence of animal fear on attentional capture by fear-relevant animal stimuli in children

The present study demonstrated that pictures of fear-relevant animals, snakes and spiders, presented among backgrounds of other animal stimuli captured attention and interfered in the detection of a neutral target to the same extent in a large sample of unselected children (N=81). Moreover, detection of a neutral target animal was slowed more in the presence of a feared fear-relevant distracter, e.g., a snake for snake fearful children, than in the presence of a not feared fear-relevant distracter, e.g., a spider for snake fearful children. These results indicate attentional capture by phylogenetically fear-relevant animal stimuli in children and the selective enhancement of this effect by fear of these animals. These findings are consistent with current models of preferential processing of phylogenetically prepared threat stimuli and with cognitive models of anxiety that propose an enhancing effect of fear in the processing of fear-related stimuli.     

Priming effects with ambiguous figures

We varied the format and semantic content of primes to determine the degree to which they would influence the interpretation of ambiguous figures. The primes were objects or object names that were related in some way to one of the two organizations of the ambiguous figures. In Experiment 1, we provided some normative data regarding the stimulus materials, whereas in Experiment 2, an orienting question was used to focus attention on the semantic relationship between the prime and the figure. In Experiment 3, we used the orienting question to divert attention away from the relationship by asking about physical features of the figures. Recognition responses to biased versions of the figures and to new figures were measured. Primes that were loosely and indirectly associated with one of the two interpretations of an ambiguous figure were found to be effective at biasing the interpretation of an ambiguous figure in the direction of the primed alternative but only if attention was focused on the semantic relationship between the two stimuli. Attention to the physical characteristics of the stimuli during encoding eliminated the prime's influence on complex object perception. These findings are consistent with the conceptual priming literature and extend those of some recent studies (Balcetis & Dale, 2007; Feist & Gentner, 2007), which show that the interpretation of complex figures can be biased by the advanced presentation of related verbal information.     

Speech perception and the discrimination of brief auditory cues in reading disabled children

The processing of speech and nonspeech sounds by 23 reading disabled children and their age- and sex-matched controls was examined in a task requiring them to identify and report the order of pairs of stimuli. Reading disabled children were impaired in making judgments with very brief tones and with stop consonant syllables at short interstimulus intervals (ISI's). They had no unusual difficulty with vowel stimuli, vowel stimuli in a white noise background, or very brief visual figures. Poor performance on the tones and stop consonants appears to be due to specific difficulty in processing very brief auditory cues. The reading disabled children also showed deficits in the perception of naturally produced words, less sharply defined category boundaries, and a greater reliance on context in making phoneme identifications. The results suggest a perceptual deficit in some reading disabled children, which interferes with the processing of phonological information.     

Springs,Nitre, and Conatus. The Role of the Heart in Hobbes's Physiology and Animal Locomotion

This paper focuses on an understudied aspect of Hobbes's natural philosophy: his approach to the domain of life. I concentrate on the role assigned by Hobbes to the heart, which occupies a central role in both his account of human physiology (which he names ‘vital motion’) and of the origin of animal locomotion (‘animal or voluntary motion’). With this, I have three goals in mind. First, I aim to offer a cross-section of Hobbes's effort to provide a mechanistic picture of human life. Second, I aim to contextualize Hobbes's views in the seventeenth-century debates on human physiology and animal locomotion. In particular, I will compare Hobbes's views with the theories put forth by Harvey, Descartes, the Galenic, and Peripatetic traditions. Also, I will show that Hobbes was receptive to advances within contemporary English physiology and chemistry. Third, by means of a comparison with Descartes, I advance some hypothesis to explain why Hobbes indentified the heart, and not the brain (as was increasingly common in his day), as the organ originating animal locomotion. In this regard, I trace out some possible implications of Hobbes's views on human physiology and locomotion for his psychology and political philosophy.     

Visual laterality in dolphins when looking at (un)familiar humans

Understanding the evolution of brain lateralisation including the origin of human visual laterality requires an understanding of brain lateralisation in related animal species. However, little is known about the visual laterality of marine mammals. To help correct this lack, we evaluated the influence of familiarity with a human on the visual response of five captive bottlenose dolphins. Dolphins gazed longer at unfamiliar than at familiar humans, revealing their capacity to discriminate between these two types of stimuli. Pooled data for responses to all test stimuli demonstrated a preferential use of left eye by all our five dolphin subjects. However, familiarity with particular humans did not influence preferential use of a given eye. Finally, we compared our results with those on other vertebrates.     

Item type,occlusion, and gender differences in mental rotation

Two experiments were conducted to examine the role of item type in mental rotation. In each experiment, participants completed two computerized mental rotation tasks, one with blocks as stimuli and one with human figures as stimuli. The tasks were formatted either as a multiple-choice psychometric test (Experiment 1) or as a same–different type task (Experiment 2). Aside from the expected replication of a decreased effect of occlusion on women's accuracy when processing human figures compared to block figures, it was hypothesized that response times would increase when processing the complex but familiar human figures, compared to the simple but unfamiliar block figures. In Experiment 1, the results relevant to occlusion were replicated. However, the presence of a speed–accuracy trade-off suggested that participants processed human figures faster but less accurately than block figures. In Experiment 2, both men and women performed faster and more accurately when processing occluded human figures than when processing nonoccluded human figures. The effect of item type, its potential link to embodied cognition, and the role of strategy selection on gender differences in mental rotation are discussed.     

The role of verbal behavior in human learning: II. Developmental differences

When children in four different age ranges operated a response device, reinforcers were presented according to fixed-interval schedules ranging in value from 10 to 70 seconds. Only the behavior of the subjects in the youngest of the four groups, the preverbal infants, resembled that of other animal species. The children in age ranges 5 to 6½ and 7½ to 9 years exhibited either the low-rate or high-rate response patterns typical of human adults. Those who showed the low-rate pattern reported a time-based formulation of the contingencies and some of them were observed to occasionally count out the interval before responding. The performance of children aged 2½ to 4 years differed from that of both infants and older children, though containing some patterning elements similar to those produced by the older and younger subjects. The predominant response pattern of the infants consisted of a pause after reinforcement followed by an accelerated rate of responding that terminated when the next reinforcer was delivered. Analysis of postreinforcement-pause duration and response rate showed that infant performance, but not that of the older children, consistently exhibited the same kinds of schedule sensitivity observed in animal behavior. The evidence supports the suggestion that the development of verbal behavior greatly alters human operant performance and may account for many of the differences found between human and animal learning.     

Ego function rating by the specialist working alone in neurology and psychiatry

Bellak and coworkers' "Ego-Function" rating was performed at a neuropsychiatric outpatients department by having an interview that was recorded once on tape analyzed by the same rater at intervals of 16 +/- 6 months using an estimation scale divided into seven main points. The result shows a high degree of uniformity in assessing the following functions: Reality testing, judgement, feeling for reality of oneself and the world, control of drives and affects, relationship to objects, ability to think, use of fantasy for solving problems, protection from stimuli, defence function, autonomic function, synthetic integrative function and feeling of competence. The most important result is that the rating can be used to good effect by neurologists and psychiatrists working alone.     

A tachistoscopic study of hemispheric processing in stuttering and nonstuttering children

Hemispheric processing, expressed as mean reaction time to various visual stimuli presented to the left and right visual fields, was investigated in eighteen stuttering and nonstuttering children. Tachistoscopic procedures were used to present linguistic stimuli (words and nonwords) as well as nonlinguistic stimuli (familiar and unfamiliar geometric figures) to the visual fields. Subjects responded by pressing a telegraph key when they perceived a real word or a familiar geometric figure. They were to make no response when they perceived nonwords or unfamiliar geometric figures. Faster reaction times were taken as an index of the most efficient or dominant hemisphere for a given task. No significant differences were found in mean reaction times for groups, visual fields, type of task, nor any of their interactions. Likewise, the data on accuracy also did not suggest that a larger proportion of stutters responded more accurately when linguistic stimuli were presented to the right hemisphere. Based on mean reaction times and on accuracy data, the stuttering and nonstuttering children performed with similar efficiencies and processing patterns.     

Object-based and egocentric mental rotation performance in older adults: The importance of gender differences and motor ability

In this study, mental rotation performance was assessed in both an object-based task, human figures and letters as stimuli, and in an egocentric-based task, a human figure as a stimulus, in 60 older persons between 60 and 71 years old (30 women, 30 men). Additionally all participants completed three motor tests measuring balance and mobility. The results show that the reaction time was slower for letters than for both human figure tasks and the mental rotation speed was faster over all for egocentric mental rotation tasks. Gender differences were found in the accuracy measurement, favoring males, and were independent of stimulus type, kind of transformation, and angular disparity. Furthermore, a regression analysis showed that the accuracy rate for object-based transformations with body stimuli could be predicted by gender and balance ability. This study showed that the mental rotation performance in older adults depends on stimulus type, kind of transformation, and gender and that performance partially relates to motor ability.     

Generalization of delayed identity matching in retarded children.

In an extension of prior research, four retarded children were trained under an identity matching-to-sample procedure containing features previously shown to produce controlled generalization to novel stimuli. They first were taught to relate a particular handsign to the sample shape, then to maintain the handsign over a delay interval, and then to select from an array the comparison shape that permitted the handsign to be maintained (i.e., the shape identical to the sample). An initial test revealed little generalization of matching to novel stimuli, but after handsigns were trained to these stimuli, accurate generalized matching appeared immediately. The results replicated prior findings and demonstrated particular features of stimulus control sufficient to enable generalized matching. A behavioral account of relational matching was supported. The technique used in this study was shown to be effective in teaching abstract relations to nonverbal retarded children.     

Effect of stimulus opening size in global dominance with orientation classification task

The aims of this study is to examine whether global dominance depends on the opening size of the stimulus with concentric hierarchical figures and orientation classification task and to determine the role of the salience of global opening and its coincidence with vertical symmetry axis of context. In the first experiment, participants had to indicate the opening direction of stimuli, which were open-left and open-right figures. Three openings were included: 10, 25 and 50% of the total circle perimeter. The results showed a local advantage with stimuli of 10%, absence of global or local advantage with stimuli of 25% and global advantage with stimuli of 50%. In the second experiment, stimuli with an opening of 50% were presented randomly in several positions in the visual field in order to avoid the coincidence of global opening with the vertical symmetry axis of context. The results showed an absence of global or local advantage. These findings indicate that global dominance with orientation classification task depends on stimulus characteristics such as opening size, and strategies used in visual recognition.