The response-stimulus contingency and reinforcement learning as a context for considering two non-behavior-analytic views of contingency learning

This paper introduces a special section on the contingency. Bower and Watson were invited to present their views of contingency learning in human infants from outside the context of behavior analysis, and Cigales, Marr, and Lattal and Shahan provided commentaries that point out some of the more interesting and controversial aspects of those views from a behavior-analytic perspective. The debate turns on how to conceptualize the response-stimulus contingency of operant learning. The present paper introduces the contingency concept and contingency detection by subjects, as well as research practices in behavior analysis, in a context in which the dependency between infant responding and the presentation of environmental consequences may be disrupted through procedures in which ordinarily consequent events occur before the response or in its absence. These points can relate to and serve as an introduction to the Bower and Watson papers on infant contingency learning as well as to the three commentaries that follow.     

Estimating true short-term consistency in vocational interests: A longitudinal SEM approach

This study aimed at estimating the correlation between true scores (true consistency) of vocational interest over a short time span in a sample of 1089 adults. Participants were administered 54 items assessing vocational, family, and leisure interests twice over a 1-month period. Responses were analyzed with a multitrait (MT) model, which supposes no temporal change, and a latent change (LC) model with temporally stable method effects. The LC model fitted the data well in 75% of cases whereas the MT never held. Error measurement is not sufficient in explaining the imperfect test-retest manifest correlations. True consistency estimates were very high with an average of .87, suggesting that although true temporal change occurs even within short periods its magnitude is rather limited.     

Distinguishing between authenticity and personality consistency in predicting well-being: A mixed method approach

Introduction

The relationship between role personality consistency and well-being is somewhat ambiguous, with past research relying on methods confounded by social desirability or role stereotypes, or conflating consistency with authenticity.

A challenge to Watson

Watson's Jeopardy victory raises the question of the similarity of artificial intelligence and human intelligence. Those of us who study human intelligence issue a challenge to the artificial intelligence community. We will construct a unique battery of tests for any computer that would provide an actual IQ score for the computer. This is the same challenge that humans face when they take an IQ test. The challenge has two levels. In the first, programmers could supply data and post hoc organizational algorithms to the computer. In the second, all algorithms would have to be provided before data are supplied and information would have to be self organizing as it is in humans.     

Human dignity: A challenge to contemporary philosophy

The United States is the hegemon. As the world's superpower, it dominates political discourse and economic policy. Around the world, our hegemony inspires in turn admiration, intimidation, anger, retaliation, and despair. What is the future of our hegemonic world? Is it viable? How will it maintain order? How one answers these questions depends on one's worldview. Many view the world in the clockwork/domination model. Others view it in terms of a self-organizing/web model. Current United States policy works within the first paradigm. I consider the world situation within the self-organization/web paradigm and propose effective methods for conscious evolution.     

A comparison of analysis methods to estimate contingency strength

To date, several data analysis methods have been used to estimate contingency strength, yet few studies have compared these methods directly. To compare the relative precision and sensitivity of four analysis methods (i.e., exhaustive event‐based, nonexhaustive event‐based, concurrent interval, concurrent+lag interval), we applied all methods to a simulated data set in which several response‐dependent and response‐independent schedules of reinforcement were programmed. We evaluated the degree to which contingency strength estimates produced from each method (a) corresponded with expected values for response‐dependent schedules and (b) showed sensitivity to parametric manipulations of response‐independent reinforcement. Results indicated both event‐based methods produced contingency strength estimates that aligned with expected values for response‐dependent schedules, but differed in sensitivity to response‐independent reinforcement. The precision of interval‐based methods varied by analysis method (concurrent vs. concurrent+lag) and schedule type (continuous vs. partial), and showed similar sensitivities to response‐independent reinforcement. Recommendations and considerations for measuring contingencies are identified.     

Detecting contingency: A key to understanding development of self and social cognition

Abstract:  Detecting contingency between self-produced actions and the consequences plays a crucial role for basic cognitive functions, such as construction of self body-image and tool-use. This paper reviews our recent studies focusing on the temporal aspect of contingency. Three studies concerning the detection of proprioceptive-visual contingency in infants, children and adults are summarized. All of these studies use delayed self-image as a tool to investigate the temporal aspect of contingency detection. Based on the results of these studies and related preceding research, the paper proposes the ubiquity of a contingency detector among the development of self and social interaction.     

A mind to blame: new views on involuntary acts

This article examines the legal implications linked to recent scientific research on human consciousness. The article contends that groundbreaking revelations about consciousness expose the frailties of the criminal law's traditional dual dichotomies of conscious versus unconscious thought processes and voluntary versus involuntary acts. These binary doctrines have no valid scientific foundation and clash with other key criminal law defenses, primarily insanity. As a result, courts may adjudicate like individuals very differently based upon their (often unclear) understanding of these doctrines and the science that underlies them. This article proposes a compromise approach by recommending that the criminal law's concept of voluntariness consist of three parts: (i) voluntary acts, (ii) involuntary acts, and (iii) semi-voluntary acts. The semi-voluntary acts category, which is new, incorporates modern ideas of consciousness and also advances the law. Using some actual criminal cases, this article applies this new three-part grouping and demonstrates how it enhances a more just outcome for defendants, victims, and society.     

A new challenge to ethical codes: Heart transplants

Summary We have entered into a new era of medical achievement with the development of successful transplantation of human organs. The transplantation of the heart has aroused the greatest scientific interest and at the same time created serious new problems of an ethical and legal nature. It has been necessary to develop new criteria to determine the moment of death of the donor in order to ensure continued life for the recipient. The decision of the moment of death should be made by a small team of skilled physicians interested in furthering this important development, but not as emotionally involved as are the surgeons awaiting the chance to prolong their patient's life with a new heart. Available and suitable hearts will probably always be in very short supply, and the selection of recipients will therefore become critical if the procedure proves to be widely acceptable.New laws will be essential before this process can be adopted in many states and countries. The cost in terms of total resources is so large that careful evaluation of the long-term results must be undertaken after a reasonable number of patients have been operated on and observed, perhaps at the end of the second year following the first procedure. Since the cost of each operation of this type approximates that of the education of several young physicians who could care for thousands of patients during their life span, a good hard look at the potential benefits and ultimate values is in order. At this point in time it is extremely important that this type of surgery be encouraged but limited to those prepared to undertake it with maximum skill and minimal risk. At present it must be recognized as a great experiment rather than a therapeutic triumph for general application.     

Temporal contiguity and contingency judgments: A Pavlovian analogue

The two experiments reported examine the role of temporal contiguity on judgments of contingency in a human analogue of the Pavlovian task. The data show that the effect of the actual delay on contingency judgment depends on the observer’s expectation regarding the delay. for a fixed contingency between the cue and the outcome, ratings of the contingency are higher when the actual delay is congruent with the observer’s expectation than when it is incongruent. We argue that our data can be understood within the context of the temporal coding hypothesis.     

A semantic challenge to non-realist cognitivism

Abstract

Recently, some philosophers have attempted to escape familiar challenges to orthodox nonnaturalist normative realism by abandoning the robust metaphysical commitments of the orthodox view. One such view is the ‘Non-Metaphysical Non-Naturalism’ or ‘Non-Realist Cognitivism’ proposed by Derek Parfit and a few others. The trouble is that, as it stands, Non-Realist Cognitivism seems unable to provide a substantive non-trivial account of the meaning and truth conditions of moral claims. The paper considers various strategies one might use to address the challenge. There is a rich field of views that are cognitivist and non-realist. But the paper is skeptical of the prospects of Non-Realist Cognitivism.     

Achieving consistency: A Study of basketball officiating

This study investigates the characteristics of professional basketball referees which can account for their successful or unsuccessful performance on the court. Several role inactment skills such as achievement via independence contribute to the prediction of this performance. The main determinant identified, however, is at the group or organizational level. Superior referees have less interindividual variance than do average or relatively unsuccessful referees. This result is discussed in terms of the role requirements of performance in this case. Interpersonal consistency of judgment is relied on for matters permitting only consensual validity. Extensions of these findings to other role enactments are suggested.