List-strength effect: I. Data and discussion

Extra items added to a list cause memory for the other items to decrease (the list-length effect). In one of the present studies we show that strengthening (or weakening) some items on a list harms (helps) free recall of the remaining list items. This is termed the list-strength effect. However, in seven recognition studies the list-strength effect was either absent or negative. This held whether strengthening was accomplished by extra study time or extra repetitions. The seven studies used various means to control rehearsal strategies, thereby providing evidence against the possibility that the findings were due to redistribution of rehearsal or effort from stronger to weaker items within a list. Current models appear unable to predict these results. We suggest that different retrieval operations underlie recall and recognition, as in the SAM model of Gillund and Shiffrin (1984), which can be made to fit the results with certain relatively minor modifications.     

Theoretical mechanisms underlying the trial-spacing effect in Pavlovian fear conditioning.

Contemporary explanations of the trial-spacing effect (TSE) were evaluated. Experiment 1 revealed, in rats given tone-footshock trials with 15-, 60-, or 900-s intertrial intervals (ITIs), a direct relationship between freezing to the tone and ITI (the TSE) but an inverted U-shaped relationship between freezing to the training context and ITI. In Experiment 2, footshock preexposure eliminated the TSE that otherwise occurs across 15- to 60-s ITIs but had no effect on the TSE that occurs across 60- to 900-s ITIs. In Experiments 3 and 4, neither (a) increasing posttraining exposure to the training context in rats trained with 60-s ITIs nor (b) reducing between-trial exposure to this context in rats trained with 900-s ITIs influenced freezing to the tone. These findings suggest that the TSE obtained in this research is due to more than 1 mechanism: 1 responsible for the TSE that occurs with ITIs less than approximately 60 s and another responsible for the TSE that occurs with ITIs greater than this. Although the perceptual-defensive-recuperative model may correctly describe the former mechanism, none of the theories tested seems to correctly describe the latter.     

Induction of the McCollough effect II: Two different mechanisms

An orientation-specific chromatic aftereffect was observed when a single colored grating was used as an induction stimulus. The magnitude of the aftereffect was compared to that obtained when alternating orthogonal gratings in complementary hues were used as induction stimuli. The two-stimulus condition produced a stronger aftereffect than a single-stimulus condition. This facilitation was also obtained when a colored plain square with no grating was substituted for the second colored grating in the two-stimulus condition. The results suggest that the McCollough effect involves adaptation of two different mechanisms, one which is orientation-specific and one which is not.     

The defense mechanisms inventory: Theoretical and psychometric implications

Defense mechanisms and object relations have been increasingly featured in the recent literature on personality and interpersonal behavior. The Defense Mechanisms Inventory (DMI) has become popular as a reference tool in many of these studies. Recent theoretical analyses have elaborated the differential conceptualization of defense from drive theory and object relations perspectives (Juni, 1997). These perspectives are used as counterpoints to analyze relevant constructs of the DMI and their underlying premises. A meta-analysis of convergent validity data is presented, supporting the rationale of the composite object relations measure of the instrument. Inadequacies in defense operationalization inherent in the DMI are reviewed, with particular stress on confounding measurement effects. Psychometric implications of the ipsative nature of the instrument are outlined. The notion of aggression as a defense is explored in context of the unique dynamic status of intropunitiveness, especially as it impacts on defense theory and the factor structure of the instrument.     

The defense mechanisms inventory: Theoretical and psychometric implications

Defense mechanisms and object relations have been increasingly featured in the recent literature on personality and interpersonal behavior. The Defense Mechanisms Inventory (DMI) has become popular as a reference tool in many of these studies. Recent theoretical analyses have elaborated the differential conceptualization of defense from drive theory and object relations perspectives (Juni, 1997). These perspectives are used as counterpoints to analyze relevant constructs of the DMI and their underlying premises. A meta-analysis of convergent validity data is presented, supporting the rationale of the composite object relations measure of the instrument. Inadequacies in defense operationalization inherent in the DMI are reviewed, with particular stress on confounding measurement effects. Psychometric implications of the ipsative nature of the instrument are outlined. The notion of aggression as a defense is explored in context of the unique dynamic status of intropunitiveness, especially as it impacts on defense theory and the factor structure of the instrument.     

授权型领导的负面效应：理论机制与边界条件

已有研究主要关注授权型领导的正面影响, 然而, 新近的研究表明授权型领导可能也会引发潜在的负面效应。针对此问题, 首先界定了授权型领导的概念及其核心特征。其次, 基于双重任务加工效应、角色理论和内隐领导理论, 阐释了授权型领导负面效应的理论机制, 并进一步分析和总结了授权型领导的有效性在何种条件下能够实现。最后, 提出了授权型领导负面效应未来研究方向的建议。     

Differential outcomes effect in children: Demonstration and mechanisms

The present paper reports three experiments that examine the role of sample stimulus-outcome (S-O) and of comparison or choice response stimulus-outcome (R-O) relations in the differential outcomes discrimination learning of five-year-old children. In these experiments, S-O relations or R-O relations were maintained or removed across two different conditional discrimination tasks. The results indicated that only children who received training in either S-O or R-O relations showed positive transfer between the conditional discriminations. These data support a two-process (‘outcome expectancy’) account of differential outcomes phenomena in which each sub-problem in a discriminative conditional choice task has its own unique reinforcer, but they also indicate that both unique sample-outcome associations and unique choice-outcome associations are important contributing features to enhanced discriminative learning under differential outcomes procedures in humans. Comparison to a control in Experiments 2 and 3 indicated that merely having had previous experience with the stimuli or having previously discriminated the stimuli did not contribute to cross-discrimination transfer in the absence of prior explicit association between those stimuli and the specific differential outcomes.     

Subcortical mechanisms in language: lexical-semantic mechanisms and the thalamus.

Four previously published cases of dominant thalamic lesion in which the author has participated are reviewed to gain a better understanding of thalamic participation in lexical-semantic functions. Naming deficits in two cases support Nadeau and Crosson's (1997) hypothesis of a selective engagement mechanism involving the frontal lobes, inferior thalamic peduncle, nucleus reticularis, and other thalamic nuclei, possibly the centromedian nucleus. This mechanism selectively engages those cortical areas required to perform a cognitive task, while maintaining other areas in a state of relative disengagement. Deficits in selective engagement disproportionately affect lexical retrieval based on semantic input, as opposed to lexical and sublexical processes, because the former is more dependent upon this attentional system. The concept of selective engagement is also useful in understanding thalamic participation in working memory, as supported by data from one recent functional neuroimaging study. Other processes also may be compromised in more posterior thalamic lesions which damage the pulvinar but not other components of this selective engagement system. A third case with aphasia after a more superior and posterior thalamic lesion also had oral reading errors similar to those in neglect dyslexia. The pattern of deficits suggested a visual processing problem in the early stages of reading. The fourth case had a category-specific naming deficit after posterior thalamic lesion. Taken together, the latter two cases indicate that the nature of language functions in more posterior regions of the dominant thalamus depends upon the cortical connectivity of the thalamic region. Together, findings from the four cases suggest that thalamic nuclei and systems are involved in multiple processes which directly or indirectly support cortical language functions.     

Cognitive categories and memory span: II. The effect of temporal vs. categorical recall

Subjects were presented with mixed lists of elements chosen from at least two formally distinct cognitive categories and were instructed to recall either temporally (i.e. in the actual order of arrival), or categorically (i.e. first all elements of one category followed by those of the other). Temporal recall is found to be superior when the categories are even and uneven digits; categorical recall is better when consonants and tones or consonants and spatial positions are mixed. Approximately equal performance is found with consonants and digits. It is suggested that efficiency of recall strategy depends on the relative strength of pre-existing associative bonds between elements from different cognitive categories. When these connections are weaker the probability increases that class membership rather than succession in time determines the assimilation of the list. It is found that with consonants and digits it does not matter whether instruction is given before or after presentation. This suggests that both recall modes can be activated at the same time. The implication of this result for work on dichotic listening is discussed.     

Contextual effects in vowel perception II: Evidence for two processing mechanisms

Recent experiments have indicated that contrast effects can be obtained with vowels by anchoring a test series with one of the endpoint vowels. These contextual effects cannot be attributed to feature detector fatigue or to the induction of an overt response bias. In the present studies, anchored ABX discrimination functions and signal detection analyses of identification data (before and after anchoring) for an [i]-[I] vowel series were used to demonstrate that [i] and [I] anchoring produce contrast effects by affecting different perceptual mechanisms. The effects of [i] anchoring were to increase within-[i] category sensitivity, while [I] anchoring shifted criterion placements. When vowels were placed in CVC syllables to reduce available auditory memory, there was a significant decrease in the size of the [I]-anchor contrast effects. The magnitude of the [i]-anchor effect was unaffected by the reduction in vowel information available in auditory memory. These results suggest that [i] and [I] anchors affect mechanisms at different levels of processing. The [i] anchoring results may reflect normalization processes in speech perception that operate at an early level of perceptual processing, while the [I] anchoring results represent changes in response criterion mediated by auditory memory for vowel information.     

The Science and Typology of Family Systems II. Further Theoretical and Practical Considerations

Family systems are conceptualized as stable, but open, control systems characterized by: (a) formal organization, similar in principle to that of other complex, organic systems — physical, cognitive ( 11 ), or social; (b) freedom of action, reserved for human, "purposefu" systems ( 1 ). These characteristics are linked to auto-regulatory processes mediated by morphostasis ( 16 ), which insures systemic stability, and morphogenesis ( 16 ), which enables the system to change in accordance with the demands of intra- and extra-systemic reality. The latter two concepts, earlier used to construct a typology of family systems ( 19 ), are here further theoretically elaborated and operationally defined ( 1 ). Morphostasis is tied to the system's: (a) behavioral structure, embodied in a network of ground rules and meta-rules, as defined, and organized according to a principle of hiearchical linkage; (b) behavioral functioning, regulated by rule circuits in accordance with a principle of functional linkage. Morphogenesis is conceptualized as a serial, decision-making, change-producing process, dependent on specified, necessary, and sufficient conditions for its occurrence. The role of pragmatic, perceptual meanings ( 1 ) and of biological/experiential and conscious/unconscious factors in the system's auto-regulation are considered, as well as research approaches to some of these problems. The implications of the present theoretical rationale for the systematic testing and clinical use of the published family system typology ( 19 ) and for some more general issues concerning psychological theory, as well as the modern Western family and society, are discussed.     

On non-verbatim learning: II. The erosion effect of a task-induced learning algorithm

Abstract.— The failure of a learning-algorithm (which tells the subjects what to do in order to succeed in the learning task) is demonstrated. The experimental group was asked content-neutral questions, intended to induce deep-level processing after each section of the passage to be read. Narrow focusing of attention on the questions themselves resulted in erosion of content, reflected in weak performance on a retention test, and only mentioning (as opposed to commenting on) topics in recall. The deleterious effects persisted over an interval of more than two months.     

Two mechanisms in the stimulus suffix effect

The stimulus suffix is a redundant item presented immediately after a stimulus list. Its effect is the selective impairment of recall of the final items in a serially recalled, auditorily presented list of unconnected items. Two experiments indicate that there was no difference between the effects of suffixes .5 and 1.0 sec after the end of a digit list presented at a rate of one digit/sec. This suggests that the effect of the suffix, in this case the vowel sound "ah," is not a simple function of its time of arrival after the final digit, as has been thought. The possibility of more complex factors was supported in a further experiment which showed a slight reduction in the size of the suffix effect by repeating the suffix three times.     

The Dependence of the form of the Pursuitmeter Learning Function on the Length of the Inter-Practice Rests: II. Theoretical

Three hypotheses derived from an explanation sketch of the ability of some individuals to understand self-embedded (SE) sentences with two embeddings involving Syllogistic reasoning ability were tested with positive results. The data indicate that those individuals who can understand SE sentences with two embeddings will be better able to reason with the use of the Syllogistic form than those who cannot, that those individuals who can reason with the use of the Syllogistic form will be able to understand SE sentences with two embeddings, and that those individuals who cannot reason with the use of the Syllogistic form will not be able to understand SE sentences with two embeddings.     

移动健康的理论基础与效果评估

移动健康(mHealth)本质上是基于移动信息技术而开发的移动健康技术。在对电子健康(eHealth)和移动健康做出区分的基础上, 通过一系列实证研究的回顾, 总结出了移动健康技术的五大理论基础, 即认知行为理论、社会支持理论、行为转变理论、行为学习理论和扎根理论。进一步分析发现, 移动健康技术在心理问题解决、生理疾病管理、健康行为促进方面具有一定效果, 但仍需要更加坚实的证据。未来研究要着重探讨移动健康干预的有效性影响因素, 进一步找出影响干预有效性的作用机制, 为实现人性化的以及良好的干预效果提供证据支撑。