The Gendered Expressions of Self-Control: Manifestations of Noncriminal Deviance Among Females

The present study explores the relationships between Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990 Gottfredson , Michael R. and Hirschi , Travis . 1990 . A General Theory of Crime . Stanford , CA : Stanford University Press . [Google Scholar]) concept of low self-control and two forms of deviance more common among females than males, borderline personality characteristics and eating disorders. Ordinary least squares regression models revealed that self-control was significantly associated with both borderline personality characteristics and eating disorder symptoms among a sample of 161 female undergraduates. The findings of the present study highlight the potential utility in expanding our focus of the effects of low self-control beyond traditional analogous behaviors, especially when attempting to understand female behavior.     

An Empirical Test of the Relationship Between Employee Theft and Low Self-Control

Although Gottfredson and Hirschi (1987, 1990 Gottfredson , M. and T. Hirschi . 1990. A General Theory of Crime . Stanford , CA : Stanford University Press. [Google Scholar]) maintain that low self-control can account for white-collar/corporate offending, there have been few and inconclusive empirical tests in this area. One area of white-collar crime, in particular, which could benefit from an examination of the role of low self-control in predicting offending, is employee theft. Although employee theft is one of the more costly and pervasive crimes impacting the American economy each year, there has been very little research examining the role of individual characteristics and personality traits in predicting this type of deviant behavior. The current research is a preliminary attempt at integrating the two bodies of literature, employee theft and low self-control.     

Does Low Self-Control Predict Fictitious Drug Use and Untruthfulness?

This study tests Hirschi and Gottfredson's (1993 Hirschi , Travis and Michael R. Gottfredson . 1993 . “Commentary: Testing the General Theory of Crime.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 30 : 47 – 54 .[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) argument that self-control is related to survey response patterns. It is hypothesized that individuals who are low in self-control will be less likely to provide honest answers in survey research, a critical but untested question with respect to the general theory. Data from approximately 1,600 high school students in a Southeastern U.S. state are used to examine the relationship between low self-control and self-reported indicators of fictitious drug use and honesty when completing a survey questionnaire dealing with deviant behavior. Findings indicate that low self-control is significantly related to reports of having used a fictitious drug and having been untruthful when completing a survey questionnaire, suggesting that the reliability of survey research may depend on individual traits such as low self-control.     

Bond to Society,Collectivism, and Conformity: A Comparative Study of Japanese and American College Students

An argument is developed that the purported collectivism in Japanese society generates stronger social bonds in Japan than in the more individualistic United States, which might then explain the lower level of deviance often found in Japan. We test this using survey data from samples of Japanese and American college students on measures of deviance and social bonds. Results indicate that Japanese students engage in significantly less deviance than Americans, and although variables from Hirschi's (1969 Hirschi , Travis. 1969 . Causes of Delinquency . Edison, NJ : Transaction Publishers . [Google Scholar]) social control theory behave similarly across cultures as predictors of deviance, the theory failed to account for the lower level of deviance among Japanese.     

More than Just a Flock? The Independent and Interdependent Nature of Peer Self-Control on Deviance

ABSTRACT

The goal of this study is to test whether a peer’s self-control is related to deviance and whether it conditions the extent to which an actor’s self-control is related to deviance. To examine these research questions, the study begins by highlighting a series of theoretical inconsistencies in expected direction of peer effects in Gottfredson and Hirschi’s self-control theory. Using dyadic data, crime is regressed onto measures of attitudinal and behavioral self-control from the actor and the friend. Regardless of how self-control is measured, findings demonstrate that the peer’s self-control relates to deviance. Additionally, peer self-control independently and interdependently relates to deviant involvement. Peer self-control is meaningful for deviance in multiple ways among people in friendships, thereby suggesting that the importance of peer self-control on offending behaviors is greater than just being part of a flock.     

Implicit and Explicit Sexual Motives as Related,But Distinct Characteristics

A measure of implicit sexual motives—the implicit AMORE—was constructed employing the Affect Misattribution Procedure (Payne, Cheng, Govorun, &; Stewart, 2005 Payne, B. K., Cheng, C. M., Govorun, O., &; Stewart, B. D. (2005). An inkblot for attitudes: Affect misattribution as implcit measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 277–293. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.277[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Subscales paralleled the 8 dimensions identified previously by the self-report measure of sexual motives, the explicit AMORE (Hill &; Preston, 1996 Hill, C. A., &; Preston, L. K. (1996). Individual differences in the experience of sexual motivation: Theory and measurement of dispositional sexual motives. Journal of Sex Research, 33, 27–45. doi:10.1080/00224499609551812[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Confirmatory factor analyses supported the proposed 8-factor model in slightly revised form, which was confirmed based on a second independent set of participants. Consistent with hypotheses, the implicit scales correlated with nonconscious erotica-viewing behavior for women in a laboratory setting. In contrast to explicit scales, implicit scales were unrelated to self-report ratings of likely sexual behavior. Finally, self-reports of aspects of sexual behavior were generally associated with the measures of implicit motives independently of corresponding explicit motives for both women and men. The results support the conception of implicit sexual motives as related, but distinct from explicit sexual motives.     

Competitive state anxiety and self-confidence: Intensity and direction as relative predictors of performance on a golf putting task

Abstract

This study considered relationships between the intensity and directional aspects of competitive state anxiety as measured by the modified Competitive Sport Anxiety Inventory-2(D) (Jones & Swain, 1992 Jones, G. and Swain, A. B. J. 1992. Intensity and direction as dimensions of competitive state anxiety and relationships with competitiveness. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 74: 467–472. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) in a sample of 12 experienced male golfers. Anxiety and performance scores from identical putting tasks performed under three different anxiety-manipulated competitive conditions were used to assess both the predictions of Multidimensional Anxiety Theory (MAT; Martens et al., 1990 Martens, R., Burton, D., Vealey, R., Bump, L. and Smith, D. 1990. “The development of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2)”. In Competitive anxiety in sport, Edited by: Martens, R., Vealey, R. S. and Burton, D. 117–190. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.  [Google Scholar]) and the relative value of intensity and direction in explaining performance variance. A within-subjects regression analysis of the intra-individual data showed partial support for the three MAT hypotheses. Cognitive anxiety intensity demonstrated a negative linear relationship with performance, somatic anxiety intensity showed a curvilinear relationship with performance, and self-confidence intensity revealed a positive linear relation. Cognitive directional anxiety illustrated a positive linear relationship with putting performance. Multiple regression analyses indicated that direction (42% of variance) was a better predictor of performance than intensity (22%)     

Deviant or Normal? Female Bodybuilders' Accounts of Social Reactions

In response to calls for more inclusive and nuanced studies of deviance, Heckert and Heckert (2002 Heckert , Alex and Druann Maria Heckert . 2002 . “A New Typology of Deviance: Integrating Normative and Reactivist Definitions of Deviance.” Deviant Behavior 23 : 449 – 479 .[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) developed a typology that incorporates both normative and reactive definitions. Their model accounts for negative deviance, positive deviance, deviance admiration, and deviant conformity (rate-busting). Through participant observation and in-depth interviews with ten amateur female bodybuilders at a university in the United States, we apply the typology to explain their perceptions of social reactions from a variety of audiences. Female bodybuilders' accounts of others' reactions to their increasingly muscular bodies, extreme dieting practices, and intense workout routines provide intriguing empirical examples of all four deviance types. Findings reflect the complexity of a deviance–conformity continuum and support the call for studies that go beyond negative social response and countercultural behavior or appearance.     

Assessing Reflective Parenting in Interaction With School-Aged Children

The aim of this study was to examine whether it was possible to develop a reliable and valid assessment of reflective parenting implicit in interaction with school-aged children using an adaptation of the Squiggle paradigm developed by Winnicott (1968 Winnicott, D. W. (1968). Playing: Its theoretical status in the clinical situation. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 49, 591–599.[PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and a manualized coding system (Normandin, Leroux, Ensink, Terradas, &; Fonagy, 2015 Normandin, L., Leroux, A., Ensink, K., Terradas, M. M., &; Fonagy, P. (2015). Reflective Parenting Assessment coding manual (Unpublished manual). University Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada. [Google Scholar]). A total of 158 mother–child dyads participated when children were age 5 to 12. Of this group, 89 children had experienced sexual abuse. Interrater reliability using the manualized coding system was excellent. The factor analysis identified a reflective parenting stance factor, in addition to an affectionate support factor and a negative parenting factor. Furthermore, there was a medium strength relationship between the mother's reflective parenting stance evident in her interactions with her child and parental reflective functioning assessed using the Parent Development Interview (Slade, Aber, Bresgi, Berger, &; Kaplan, 2004 Slade, A., Aber, J. L., Bresgi, I., Berger, B., &; Kaplan, M. (2004). The Parent Development Interview–Revised (Unpublished protocol). The City University of New York, New York, NY. [Google Scholar]), suggesting the parental reflective stance is a good indicator of parental reflective functioning in interaction. With regard to parent reports of child internalizing and externalizing behaviors, the reflective parenting stance was the only predictor of internalizing difficulties and a significant predictor of externalizing difficulties in addition to sexual abuse.     

Are Persons Low in Self-Control Rational and Deterrable?

This work addresses a question raised by Wright et al. (2004 Wright , Richard T. and Scott H. Decker. 1994 . Burglars on the Job: Street life and Residential Breakins . Boston : Northeastern University Press . [Google Scholar]) pertaining to the rationality and deterrability of individuals with low self-control. According to some, all persons are presumed to be equally rational; according others, individuals who possess little self-control, who are impulsive and present-oriented are less likely to be influenced by a perceived risks and costs of punishment; and according to a third group of scholars, those who do possess such self-control/restraint are either not motivated toward offending or are inhibited by moral constraints and are, thus, unresponsive to sanction threats. These rival predictions are examined with the use of self-report survey data on academic dishonesty from a sample of undergraduate college students. Across a tremendous number of models employing a variety of functional forms for the effects of perceived sanction threats, we consistently observed that the effects of perceived sanction threats on college students' self-reported academic dishonesty did not vary by their level of offending propensity (self-control).     

Islamophobia and the therapeutic dialogue: Some reflections

In the atmosphere of fear and controversy that surrounds Muslims at this moment in time it is hardly surprising that they feel unable to voice their fears and concerns openly. Added to this is the fact that Muslims already underutilize mental health services (Patel et al., 2000 Patel, N, Bennett, E, Dennis, M, Dosanjh, N, Matitani, A, Miller, A and Nadirshaw, Z. 2000. Clinical Psychology: ‘Race’ and ‘Culture’: A training manual, Leicester: The British Psychological Society.  [Google Scholar]). In the counselling arena four distinct aspects of the counselling relationship are affected. First, the therapeutic alliance, second, the socio-political context in which counselling occurs, third, the awareness of personal characteristics and competencies that facilitate multicultural counselling and, finally, the training requirements of multicultural counsellors. This paper seeks to consider each of these aspects of the therapeutic encounter with regard to Muslim clients.     

Sanctifying Work: Effects on Satisfaction,Commitment, and Intent to Leave

Sanctification involves perceiving objects or events: (a) theistically by viewing them as having spiritual significance, or (b) nontheistically by viewing them as extraordinary and worthy of veneration and respect without any reference to a higher being. Previous research has found positive outcomes associated with sanctification, including increased satisfaction with marriage (Mahoney et al., 1999 Mahoney, A., Pargament, K. I., Jewell, T., Swank, A. B., Scott, E.Emery, E. 1999. Marriage and the spiritual realm: The role of proximal and distal religious constructs in marital functioning. Journal of Family Psychology, 13: 321–338. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), body image (Mahoney, Carels, et al., 2005 Mahoney, A., Carels, R. A., Pargament, K. I., Wachholtz, A., Leeper, L. E.Kaplar, M. 2005. The sanctification of the body and behavioral health patterns of college students. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 15: 221–238. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) and sexual intercourse (Murray-Swank, Pargament, & Mahoney, 2002 Murray-Swank, N. A., Pargament, K. I. and Mahoney, A. 2002. At the crossroads of sexuality and spirituality: The sanctification of sex by college students. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 15: 199–219.  [Google Scholar]) to name a few. This study extends these findings into the world of work by demonstrating that those who sanctify their jobs are more satisfied, more committed to their organization, and at the same time less likely to intend to leave.     

Computer Scoring of Emotional Awareness in a Nonclinical Population of Young Adults

The Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale (LEAS; Lane, Quinlan, Schwartz, Walker, &; Zeitlin, 1990 Lane, R. D., Quinlan, D. M., Schwartz, G. E., Walker, P. A., &; Zeitlin, S. B. (1990). The Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale: A cognitive-developmental measure of emotion. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55, 124–134. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa5501&;2_12[Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) is an open-ended measure of the ability to describe emotional reactions. Scoring the LEAS by hand is complex and time consuming (Barchard, Bajgar, Leaf, &; Lane, 2010 Barchard, K. A., Bajgar, J., Leaf, D. E., &; Lane, R. D. (2010). Computer scoring of the Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale. Behavior Research Methods, 42, 586–595. doi:10.3758/BRM.42.2.586[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Therefore, Program for Open-Ended Scoring (POES; Leaf &; Barchard, 2010 Leaf, D. E., &; Barchard, K. A. (2010). Program for Open-Ended Scoring [POES] version 1.4.1 [Unpublished program]. Available from Kim Barchard, Department of Psychology, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, Las Vegas, NV, 89154–5030, kim.barchard@unlv.edu [Google Scholar]) was designed to score the LEAS quickly and easily. Using 268 undergraduates, this article compares traditional LEAS hand scoring to 6 POES methods, 2 of which are holistic methods that have never before been examined. Based on split-half reliability, correlations with measures of emotional and social intelligence, and partial correlations once response length and vocabulary were partialed out, we recommend 3 of the POES methods when testing nonclinical samples of young adults. Because POES scoring is fast and efficient, it allows more researchers and clinicians to use the LEAS, thus moving away from self-report measures of emotional awareness.     

Reliability and Factor Structure of the Psychological Maltreatment and Neglect Scales of the Computer Assisted Maltreatment Inventory (CAMI)

The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Psychological Maltreatment (PM) and Neglect subscales of the Computer Assisted Maltreatment Inventory (CAMI; DiLillo et al., 2010 DiLillo, D., Hayes-Skelton, S. A., Fortier, M. A., Perry, A. R., Evans, S.Messman-Moore, T. L. 2010. Development and initial psychometric properties of the Computer Assisted Maltreatment Inventory (CAMI): A comprehensive self-report measure of child maltreatment history. Child Abuse and Neglect, 34: 305–317. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). The CAMI is a retrospective self-report measure that assesses multiple forms of child maltreatment (i.e., sexual, physical, psychological, neglect, exposure to interparental violence) retrospectively from adults. The CAMI's PM and Neglect subscales were administered to a geographically diverse sample of 400 college students and a sample of 412 newlyweds. Exploratory factor analyses were conducted for each group separately by subscale. Represented in the PM factor structures were items that depict emotional responsiveness, terrorizing/spurning, demanding/rigid, corrupting, and isolating parental behaviors. The Neglect scale included items depicting basic needs, cleanliness, abandonment, monitoring and medical neglect factors. Revised versions of the CAMI PM and Neglect subscales based on the factor analysis are presented.     

Sexual Harassment,Racial Harassment,and Well-Being among Asian American Women: An Intersectional Approach

ABSTRACT

Harassment of Asian American (AA) women has received little attention in popular culture and academic research despite their long legacy of sexualized racial stereotyping (e.g., Geisha, sexually submissive; Shimizu, 2007) and additional risk of mistreatment due to their membership in both marginalized gender and racial groups (Beale, 1970 Beale, F. (1970). Double jeopardy: To be Black and female. In T. C. Bambara (Ed.), The Black woman: An anthology (pp. 90–100). New York: New American Library. [Google Scholar]; Settles & Buchanan, 2014 Settles, I. H., & Buchanan, N. T. (2014). Intersectionality: Multiple categories of identity and difference. In V. Benet-Martinez and Y. Hong (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Multicultural Identity (pp. 160–180). New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Inc. [Google Scholar]). This study addresses this dearth of research using an intersectional theoretical framework to comprehensively examine sexual and racial harassment with a sample of AA women. Results validated the underlying factor structure of the Sexual Experiences Questionnaire (Fitzgerald, Gelfand, & Drasgow, 1995 Fitzgerald, L. F., Gelfand, M. J., & Drasgow, F. (1995). Measuring sexual harassment: Theoretical and psychometric advances. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17, 425–445. doi:10.1207/s15324834basp1704_2[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and the Racial Acts, Crimes, and Experiences Scale (RACES; Bergman & Buchanan, 2008 Bergman, M., & Buchanan, N. T. (2008). Development of the Racial Acts, Crimes, and Experiences Survey (RACES). Unpublished instrument. [Google Scholar]) for AA women. Additionally, our results replicated previous research indicating that participants often reported experiencing behaviors that constitute harassment, but did not label them as such. This supports the use of behavioral measures over items that require individuals to label their experiences as harassment. Finally, we examined the associations between these forms of harassment and two indicators of psychological well-being, depression, and posttraumatic stress (PTS). Our results found that gender harassment was associated with more depression, whereas unwanted sexual attention, sexual coercion, and racial harassment were associated with increased PTS. This supports the utility of including both sexual and racial harassment in providing a more nuanced understanding of AA women’s harassment experiences overall and the relationship of harassment to psychological well-being. We discuss theoretical and clinical implications of these findings.     

The Influence of Task Value,Expectancies for Success,and Identity on Athletes' Achievement Behaviors

This study extended and supported the use of Eccles et al.'s (1983) Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L. and Midgley, C. 1983. “Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors”. In Achievement and achievement motives: Psychological and sociological approaches, Edited by: Spence, J. T. 75–146. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.  [Google Scholar] expectancy-value model to a competitive sport context. High school varsity basketball players (N = 189) were assessed on expectancies for success, interest value, attainment value, utility value, and basketball identity. Achievement behavior was measured as coaches't ratings of players' effort and persistence displayed throughout the season. Significant differences emerged between African-American and White athletes on all variables; however, no gender differences were present. Regression analyses indicated different patterns in the relationships among self- and task beliefs and achievement behaviors by race. Structural equation modeling demonstrated that self- and task beliefs mediated the relationship between identity and effort and persistence. Specifically, identity was a strong predictor of self- and task beliefs and expectancies significantly predicted effort and persistence. Explanations for the racial differences are discussed as well as the role that identity plays in the expectancy-value model and practical implications for coaches.     

Psychometric Properties of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–Adolescent (MMPI–A) Clinical,Content, and Supplementary Scales in a Forensic Sample

In this study, we evaluated the internal psychometric properties and external correlates of scores on the Clinical, Content, and Supplementary scales in a forensic sample of 496 adolescents (315 boys and 181 girls) who were court-ordered to receive psychological evaluations. We examined Cronbach's alpha coefficients, scale intercorrelation matrices, and frequencies of scale elevations. Further, we found varying degrees of support for the convergent and discriminant validity of scores on the MMPI–A (Butcher et al., 1992 Butcher, J. N., Williams, C. L., Graham, J. R., Archer, R. P., Tellegen, A., Ben-Porath, Y. S. and Kaemmer, B. 1992. MMPI–A (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–Adolescent): Manual for administration, scoring, and interpretation, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.  [Google Scholar]) Clinical, Content, and Supplementary scales. This study adds to the body of literature establishing the utility of the MMPI–A in forensic evaluations.