societal attachments,offending frequency,and techniques of neutralization

This study investigates the influence of societal attachments and offending frequency on the use of neutralization techniques. To do this, 42 auto thieves were interviewed. Findings indicate that socially attached offenders are more likely to use neutralizations than less attached offenders. In addition, when offenders in the low-attached group did use neutralizations, they did not use the same ones that high-attached offenders used. No difference was found between high and low frequency offenders in their likelihood of using neutralizations. They did differ in the types of neutralizations used, and there is considerable variation in the nature of neutralization techniques. Findings are consistent with Sykes and Matza's (1957) original conception of the theory.     

“It’s Just Paint”: Street Taggers’ Use of Neutralization Techniques

Neutralization theory posits that individuals use various linguistic techniques to free themselves from guilt associated with offending and/or to maintain a non-criminal self-image. Drawing on interviews with 25 active juvenile street taggers in a large metropolitan area of Texas, this study explores their use of Sykes and Matza’s five techniques of neutralizations and the reasons they give for drifting in and out of offending. Results suggest that offenders have several common stressors that lead them to engage in tagging and that they make extensive use of neutralization techniques to justify their actions.     

Deviance and the neutralization of moral commitment: An empirical analysis

Neutralization theory was proposed by Sykes and Matza (1957) as a theory of juvenile delinquency. Its major propositions are: (1) Delinquents maintain moral commitment to conventional norms, and (2) the ability to neutralize moral commitment facilitates juvenile delinquency. The present research attempts to evaluate neutralization theory for predicting variation in self‐reported expected illegal behavior in a random sample of 350 adults. Data analysis indicates that (1) neutralization is conceptually and empirically distinct from moral commitment, and (2) the interaction between moral commitment and neutralization significantly explains expected involvement in future deviance.     

The Road to Hell: Neutralization of Killing in War

We explore how societies convince citizens to “go to hell,” where they kill strangers and risk their own lives. Our premise is that killing is difficult for most, regardless of context and widely considered a form of extreme deviance. Using Sykes and Matza’s techniques of neutralization, we show how this aversion to killing is neutralized by placing individuals in organized—both macro-level bureaucratic and micro-level small primary groups—to justify killing. Consequently, the neutralization of mass killing illustrates the role of power in defining deviance, and the failure of neutralizations may sometimes explain Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.     

Honor Crimes in the United States and Offenders’ Neutralization Techniques

Honor crimes are violent acts that are experienced among different religions and ethnicities. This type of offense can be justified, either before or after the crime, by the offender’s perceived need to protect honor-based values. This study used Sykes and Matza’s neutralization theory to explain the offender’s justification of honor crimes. We used data from the United States Extremist Crime Database, which has incident, victim, and perpetrator level indicators for the population of honor crimes in the United States (N = 16). Using open source search files for the cases, neutralizations and justifications provided by the offenders are presented.     

Self-esteem and institutionalized delinquent offenders: the role of background characteristics.

Some of the delinquency literature sustains the assumption that inept persons doing unworthy things is the self-view held by youth offenders, "Disadvantaged" or "adverse" background characteristics are often assumed to account for low self-esteem among delinquent offenders. However, the implications of control theory suggest that youths having few bonds to people and institutions are relatively "free" to drift into delinquency without serious damage to self-esteem. The hypothesis we examined was derived from the work of control theorists: that self-esteem would be higher for offenders "removed" from conventional ties, lower for those who maintained conventional attachments. Data from 75 male delinquent offenders incarcerated at a correctional youth institution are used in testing this relationship. Our hypothesis received strong support. The implication drawn from these results is that the impact of the correctional process on self-esteem may be far less important than the myriad relationships previously established with people and institutions. These results pertaining to a special category of youth are in keeping with the reported findings on the link between deprivation and self-esteem of general youth populations.     

professional lapses: occupational deviance and neutralization techniques in veterinary medical practice

This study explores the techniques veterinarians use to neutralize ethically legally problematic lapses in the performance of their professional duties. Data were collected during a five-year period via ethnographic fieldwork and in-depth interviews with veterinarians in a Southern state. Though the veterinarians in this study do not question the validity of the rules in the dominant normative system, they do question the applicability of those rules to their roles in certain circumstances. Through the use of various neutralization techniques, these veterinarians make possible behaviors that outsiders to their circumstances might question on legal or ethical grounds.     

The variability of the delinquent self: Anti-authority attitudes and endorsement of neutralization techniques among incarcerated delinquents in Singapore

This study presents research findings showing that the delinquent social identity is not a fixed entity but varies according to situational factors. Participants were incarcerated Singapore delinquents of both genders, who responded to a vignette of a rule-breaking situation when either their family or their gang social identities are made salient. Another manipulation involves confrontation by authority either in public or in private. Results demonstrate that delinquents' attitude toward authority and their endorsement of the techniques of neutralization vary depending on the salience of their identities and confrontation by authority. This lends support to self-categorization theory's concept of the variable self.     

The effects of behavior modification on the attitudes of delinquents

This study investigates whether exposure to the rehabilitation techniques of behavior modification changes the attitudes of delinquents so that they more closely approximate the norms of the community. The attitudes of delinquent boys in a community based home that uses behavior modification principles are contrasted over time with a control group of eighth grade boys from the same community. The results suggest that the delinquent boys tend to improve dramatically in self-esteem and from externality to internality, actually scoring more favorably in each case than the control group at post-test. They improve also in achievement orientation but they remain below the control group. Finally, the delinquent boys are slightly less Machiavellian than the control group and this did not change across time.     

Delinquency,substance abuse,and risk taking in middle-class adolescents

Risk-taking attitudes are strong predictors of delinquency and substance abuse among male and female middle-class adolescents. Risk-taking measures make strong and independent contributions to predicting self-reported delinquency and drug and alcohol use, even taking into account bonding to family and school and attitudes toward one's religious faith and employment. A measure of involvement with a delinquent peer group also predicts delinquency and drug and alcohol use. Moreover, those adolescents who are more likely to be involved in delinquent activity, or to be heavier users of substances, are less likely to turn to parents or formal helpers (e.g., counselors, teachers, etc.), and more likely to turn to peers for help. Delinquency and substance abuse prevention programs should take into account adolescent risk taking and should affect peer group norms if they are to be effective.     

Presumed Guilty: Constructing Deviance and Deviants through Techniques of Neutralization

Techniques of neutralization have become one of the most ubiquitous concepts in the study of deviance. This article examines the way in which analysts who use neutralization theory construct the nature of deviance and those who engage in it. The author argues that by invoking the concept of neutralizations, analysts endorse the deviant label being applied to those they study and engage in the practice of “motive mongering.” In many cases, assumptions about the behavior and disposition of those who engage in deviant behavior have been accepted without empirical justification. The implications of this practice for objectivist and subjectivist approaches to defining deviance are examined.     

A Model of Neutralization Techniques

ABSTRACT

Neutralizations are important explanations for the rise and persistence of deviant behavior. We can find many different and overlapping techniques of neutralizations in the literature, which may be a reason for inconsistent research findings on the use and influence of neutralization techniques. Therefore, by following both a deductive and an inductive approach, this article develops a model that covers these techniques in a logical way. This is a novel approach in studying neutralization techniques. We distinguish four categories of neutralizations: distorting the facts, negating the norm, blaming the circumstances, and hiding behind oneself. Based on a broad inventory of neutralizations that are identified in the literature – something that has not been done before – we operationalized each of the four categories into three techniques, each of which consists of five subtechniques. The resulting model aims to reduce the risk of arbitrariness in the selection of techniques for empirical research and thereby facilitates more consistent future research findings. The model also aims to help better understand how neutralizations work.     

Self-esteem and social desirability in relation to college students' retrospective perceptions of parental fairness and disciplinary practices

This study examined the relationships that fathers' and mothers' interactive of disciplinary behaviors have with college students' Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory scores, Social Desirability scale scores, and their retrospective perceptions of their parents' fairness (50 sons, 84 daughters). Sons with higher scores in self-esteem reported that their mothers were fairer, had more interest in their activities, and were less likely to use verbal put-downs (abuse). Daughters with high self-esteem reported both of their parents were more interested in their activities, used praise more often, and refrained from verbal abuse. Also, these daughters reported that their mothers were more fair and encouraged their independence more. Daughters who reported their fathers as being more strict had lower self-esteem scores. There was no evidence that spanking, grounding, scolding, or monetary rewards had any effect on children's self-esteem scores, whether these methods were used by mothers or by fathers. Both sons and daughters who perceived their parents as being more fair also saw them as being more interested, having used praise more often, and having been less likely to have used verbal abuse. Daughters were less likely to view either fathers or mothers as being more fair if they had used spanking, grounding, or scolding more, and had been over-all stricter. Sons who had less strict fathers or who had received monetary rewards from them tended to regard them as being more fair. Higher social desirability scores correlated with higher self-esteem of women. Also, women with these higher social desirability scores tended to report that both their fathers and mothers used scolding and grounding less often.     

Associations between delinquency and suicidal behaviors in a nationally representative sample of adolescents

Suicide was the second leading cause of death for 14-17 years olds in 2002. Prior studies indicate that suicidal behaviors are especially common among juvenile delinquents, yet this association has not been examined in a national sample. The 2003 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System was used to examine associations between suicidal behaviors and delinquency in a nationally representative sample of 14-17 year olds. Results indicated that delinquent adolescents were more likely to have seriously considered suicide (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 5.44), made a suicide plan (AOR = 4.90), attempted suicide (AOR = 10.08), and required medical treatment after attempting suicide (AOR = 14.61) compared to their nondelinquent counterparts. Delinquency was significantly related to suicidal behaviors for boys and girls, but the magnitudes of effects were larger for girls. This finding suggests that delinquent youth, particularly delinquent girls, should be targeted in interventions to reduce suicidal behaviors.     

The Coincidence of Depression and High Ability in Delinquent Youth

We describe the incidence and coincidence of depression and high ability in a sample of Virginia's incarcerated delinquent youth population. Specifically, 207 incarcerated juveniles were assessed with the Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices and the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI). The data indicated there were as many high ability juveniles in detention settings as would be expected in a regular population. Results from the CDI identified 37% as at risk for clinical depression. Cross-tabulation of the data indicated a significant relationship between high ability and depression in the delinquent population. In addition, the findings indicated that the presence of depression is related to the ability level of the juvenile. That high ability delinquents may be more vulnerable to depression argues that the coincidence of these conditions requires consideration. Based upon these findings, and given the high correlation suicide has with depression, we suggest that screening for depression should be mandatory for incarcerated delinquents.     

Gender Differences in Risk and Promotive Classifications Associated With Adolescent Delinquency

How likely are children exposed to multiple risk factors to engage in delinquent behavior, to what extent do promotive factors mitigate exposure to these risk factors, and do the predictors of delinquent behavior differ by gender? To address these questions, the authors analyzed data from youths (229 boys, 187 girls) who completed the third wave of the Lehigh Longitudinal Study using Latent Profile Analysis. A unique risk and promotive class with slightly elevated rates of exposure to parental violence, mean levels of other risk factors and low levels of promotive factors was present for girls but not for boys. Additionally, for boys and girls, high-risk, low-promotive individuals were significantly more likely to engage in delinquent behavior than low-risk, high-promotive cases. Findings suggest the need to examine risk and promotive factors in combination to account for their shared influences on developmental outcomes for youth.     

Sexuality education groups in juvenile detention

Several major studies have described the magnitude and character of adolescent sexual activity and sexual knowledge related to contraception and sexually transmitted diseases (Diepold & Young, 1979; Hass, 1979; Sorenson, 1973; Zelnick & Kantner, 1980). Few systematic studies have been conducted, however, which analyze the attitudes toward sexuality and contraception of delinquent adolescents who are generally school dropouts and who may engage in socially unacceptable behaviors such as running away, drug abuse, and prostitution. Delinquent youths, especially delinquent girls, have been characterized as being more sexually active and less sexually knowledgeable than their nondelinquent peers (Gibbon, 1981; Mannarino & Marsh, 1978). Despite the assumed high-risk nature of this delinquent population, few juvenile detention facilities have offered systematically evaluated coeducational sex education programs. One barrier to implementation of such programs in juvenile detention centers is the lack of a treatment or program orientation of most staff, and/or staff denial of adolescent sexuality in general, an attitude which suppresses the development of healthier sexual values and often promotes pathologic sexual interaction within institutions (Shore & Gochros, 1981). A recent survey of adolescent sexuality (Diepold, 1979) points out that teenagers' feelings about their "sexual selves" impacts greatly upon their general self-image. Low self-esteem is more frequently found among delinquents than nondelinquents (Jones & Swain, 1977; Lund & Salury, 1980), and treatment for delinquent girls often focuses on increasing self-esteem and developing assertiveness skills based on feelings of self-worth (DeLange, Lanahan, & Barton, 1981; NiCarthy, 1981). Two studies carried out with juvenile detainees from a large urban center confirmed that sexual activity among delinquent adolescents is significantly greater than that of the general adolescent population, and that the delinquents have little or no knowledge of birth control methods or venereal disease (Deisher, 1980; Schroeder, 1981). Further, these adolescents appear to endorse constricted and conventional values related to sexual activity, abortion, and relationship issues and frequently have a background of sexual abuse and prostitution. These findings form the basis of the current study which attempts to develop an effective coeducational sex education program for this population within a detention facility. This program is specifically designed for a sexually active adolescent group aged 14 to 17.     

How to remain neutral: An experimental analysis of neutralization

Many patients with obsessive-compulsive problems engage in neutralizing activity to reduce or “cancel out” the effects of the obsession. In many cases, neutralization is covert and therefore difficult to assess or manipulate experimentally. We hypothesize that neutralization resembles overt compulsions. In particular, it was predicted that: (i) neutralization reduces the anxiety evoked by unacceptable thoughts, and (ii) if neutralization is delayed, anxiety and the urge to neutralize will decay naturally. To test the hypothesis, 63 Ss prone to a cognitive bias known to be associated with obsessional complaints (thought-action fusion) were asked to write a sentence that would evoke anxiety. Measures of anxiety (and other variables of interest such as guilt, responsibility and the likelihood of harm) were taken. Subjects were then instructed to either immediately neutralize (n = 29) or delay for 20 min (n = 34), after which time anxiety and urge to neutralize were re-assessed. The Ss who had neutralized were then instructed to delay, and the Ss who had delayed were now instructed to neutralize, after which time the final assessments were taken. The results confirmed the predictions and supported the hypothesis that neutralization resembles overt compulsions. Of note, there were no differences between anxiety reduction after a 20-min delay, and after immediate neutralization. The problems involved in designing and conducting experiments on covert phenomena are discussed, and the clinical implications of the study are considered.     

Rate of offending,risk-evaluation and risk-preference

Delinquency is a form of risk-taking. Delinquents might therefore be expected to be either attracted by risks or to be less inclined to notice them. Previous research (Eysenck and McGurk, 1980) has suggested that delinquents do not have a distinctive risk-preference but that they are less likely to evaluate risks. The present study related individual in risk-preference and risk-evaluation to the rate at which delinquents commit offences. High-rate offenders by both high risk-preference and a tendency not to evaluate risks before acting. Possible reasons for the discrepancy between these results and those obtained by Eysenck and McGurk are considered.