“Prison Will Either Make Ya or Break Ya”: Punishment,Deterrence, and the Criminal Lifestyle

Although a prison sentence is often considered to be among the worst punishments that the state can provide, previous research indicates that offenders do not necessarily share this view. Some inmates, for example, adjust to prison life with relative ease, do not view their time in prison as severe punishment, and may even prefer prison to alternative sanctions such as boot camp or probation. To help explain such views, we point to the utility of a “criminal lifestyle” perspective. We argue that offenders who are committed to the values of the criminal subculture tend to view prison in a unique way. For various reasons, such offenders are less likely than others to view imprisonment as difficult or severe and they are less likely to be deterred by prison. Drawing on data from a large inmate survey, we find initial empirical support for these arguments. Implications for deterrence and future research are discussed.     

One year return to custody rates among co-disordered offenders

The extent to which therapeutic community (TC) methods meet the treatment needs of offenders with substance abuse disorders and co-occurring psychiatric disorders in prison is largely unknown. Very little research has been conducted with this population. The purposes of this study were to generate profiles of co-disordered drug offenders entering TC treatment in prison and to assess their post-release reincarceration rates, compared with drug offenders without psychiatric disorders. Extensive intake interview data for over 8,500 men and women who received treatment in one of 16 prison-based TCs in California were analyzed to produce profiles of co-disordered participants. Intake data come from a 5 year process and outcome evaluation of the California Department of Corrections' (CDC's) treatment initiative. Post-release reincarceration rates come from the CDC's Offender Based Information System. Compared with non-psychiatric disordered drug offenders, co-disordered offenders had substantially more severe substance abuse and criminal histories, in addition to their psychiatric impairment, at treatment entry. Logistic regression results indicated that, compared with drug offenders without psychiatric illness, co-disordered offenders were significantly more likely to be reincarcerated during the first year of their parole. These results suggest that prison treatment programs may need to use more comprehensive diagnostic assessments at intake to assess the diverse mental health needs of drug offenders with co-occurring psychiatric disorders and to develop treatment approaches suitable for this population.     

Countering Correctional Discourse

SUMMARY

This article discusses the development of a feminist support group for women prisoners enrolled in a six-month substance abuse treatment program in an adult correctional facility in Guam. After the completion of five Group cycles, a follow-up study was conducted in the community using qualitative, feminist, and participatory methods. Results indicate that the Group was successful in helping women prisoners to address trauma, addiction, and the stresses associated with incarceration. Nevertheless, participants reported having significant difficulty transitioning into the community upon release and 23% were sent back to prison for parole violations. Recommendations are outlined for gender-responsive programming, both within women's prisons and in the community, to support women offenders after release.     

White-collar Prisoners' Perceptions of Audience Reaction

There appears to be a societal-level change in the reaction to white-collar crime. The present study explored how white-collar prisoners perceive the reactions of the judiciary, media, significant others, prison staff, and other inmates toward them, and how these offenders perceived their own offending behavior. Interviews with 14 offenders revealed that they perceived the reaction of the judiciary and media as negative (e.g., punitive), but the reaction of significant others, prison staff, and other inmates as positive (e.g., supportive). Offenders also neutralized their own criminal behavior. Perceptions of audience reaction were shaped by offenders' expectations of how others would react and their own conceptions of crime.     

The HoST programme: A pilot evaluation of modified dialectical behaviour therapy with female offenders diagnosed with borderline personality disorder

The Holloway skills therapy programme (HoST) at Her Majesty’s Prison and Young Offenders’ Institution Holloway is provided to women who, because of problematic behaviour associated with borderline personality disorder, are often excluded from treatment in prison and in the community. HoST addresses issues of offending behaviour, self-harm, suicidality and indiscipline, through a modified evidence-based treatment modality, dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT), which is a form of cognitive behaviour psychotherapy. This paper will outline the possibility of a modified DBT approach to working with female offenders in the prison setting. A pilot evaluation of female prisoners who received the treatment is also presented through a range of quantitative measures. In turn, positive outcomes with regard to reduction in time spent on the assessment and care in custody teamwork process, reduction in adjudications and improved overall mental health are presented. These findings are discussed along with the implications for clinical practice in the prison setting. The need for future structured research is also discussed.     

Individual characteristics related to prison violence: A critical review of the literature

At the end of 2010, prisons in the United States incarcerated over 1,605,127 inmates, yielding an imprisonment rate of 497 per 100,000 residents (Guerino, Harrison, & Sabol, 2011). Approximately 15.6% of correctional officers have been the victim of an inmate assault (Duhart, 2001) and 21% of inmates reported being victims of violence in prison (Wolff, Blitz, Shi, Siegel, & Bachman, 2007). However, which inmates are more likely to perpetuate these violent acts while incarcerated? The present paper critically reviews the empirical literature on the relation between individual characteristics of inmates and prison violence. Variables are divided into three general categories: demographic, criminal history, and psychological variables. From over 500 studies, a representative sample of 20 studies from 1990 to 2011 was reviewed based on specified inclusion criteria, such as adult males incarcerated in English-speaking countries. Although there are some discrepant findings, a general conclusion can be reached regarding most variables. These characteristics are compiled into a prototype of an inmate at “high” risk and an inmate at “low” risk for prison violence. Methodological limitations of the research are presented, as well as suggestions for future research directions.     

“Four Gods” in Maximum Security Prison: Images of God,Religiousness, and Worldviews Among Inmates

This paper extends research on images of God, which prior researchers based mostly on national survey data, to a study of offenders in prison. We first explore whether the distribution of Froese and Bader’s (America’s four gods: What we say about god–& what that says about us, Oxford University Press, New York 2010) four images of God among prison inmates is similar to that in the general population. We then examine whether an inmate’s image of God is associated with the inmate’s worldviews: beliefs and attitudes toward the law, other inmates, moral responsibility, and ultimate meaning and purpose in life. Finally, we test whether an inmate’s belief in a forgiving God and religiousness explain the association. We analyzed data from a survey of 2249 inmates at America’s largest maximum-security prison, the Louisiana State Penitentiary. We found the distribution of God-images among inmates was the same as that in national samples in terms of rank order. As hypothesized, we also found inmates with an image of an engaged God tended to report lower levels of legal cynicism and sense of illegitimacy of punishment and higher levels of collective efficacy, existential belief, and moral responsibility than those with images of a disengaged God or no God. Finally, we found an inmate’s belief in a forgiving God and religiousness to mediate partly relationships between images of God and the inmate’s worldviews.     

Modified TC for MICA offenders: crime outcomes

The study randomly assigned male inmates with co-occurring serious mental illness and chemical abuse (MICA) disorders to either modified therapeutic community (MTC) or mental health (MH) treatment programs. On their release from prison, MICA inmates who completed the prison MTC program could enter the MTC aftercare program. The results, obtained from an intent-to-treat analysis of all study entries, showed that inmates randomized into the MTC group had significantly lower rates of reincarceration compared with those in the MH group. The results also show that differences between the MTC + aftercare and comparison group across a variety of crime outcomes (i.e. any criminal activity, and alcohol or drug related criminal activity) are consistent and significant, and persist after an examination of various threats to validity (e.g. initial motivation, duration of treatment, exposure to risk). This study provides some support for the effectiveness of the prison TC only condition. The findings are encouraging and consonant with other studies of integrated prison and aftercare TC programs for substance abusing non-MICA offenders, although qualified by the possibility that selection bias (i.e. differences in motivation on entry into aftercare) may be operating. Nevertheless, given the available evidence and the need for effective programming for MICA offenders, program and policy makers should strongly consider developing integrated prison and aftercare modified TC programs for MICA offenders.     

Treatment outcomes for female offenders: relationship to number of Axis I diagnoses

This article describes a study that examined the relationship between multiple Axis I mental health diagnoses and treatment outcomes for female offenders in prison substance abuse treatment programs. Preliminary findings of the effectiveness of therapeutic community (TC) treatment, modified for female offenders, relative to a control cognitive behavioral treatment condition, are presented. The hypothesis--that participants who fit into multiple diagnostic categories have more dysfunctional symptoms and behaviors at baseline--was confirmed; however, a hypothesized relationship between the number of Axis I diagnoses and 6 month treatment outcomes across five domains (mental health, trauma exposure, substance use, HIV needle risk behaviors, and HIV sexual risk) was not supported. Across all Axis I mental health groups, TC treatment was significantly more effective than the control condition overall, as well as on measures of mental health symptoms and HIV sexual risk. These findings suggest that this TC treatment program, as modified, is an effective model for women with varied diagnoses and diagnostic complexities.     

Prognostische Validität des Level of Service Inventory-Revised

This study examined the validity of the level of service inventory-revised (LSI-R) for a sample of young violent offenders in Germany (N?=199) who were sentenced to more than 2 years imprisonment using a retrospective study design. Offenders with a migrant background from a predominantly Muslim country were compared to native German offenders. Both groups were similar regarding age, criminal history, socioeconomic status, education, current risk of subsequent offending and recidivism. For the group of young offenders with a migrant background from a predominantly Muslim country (n?=85), the LSI-R failed to validly predict problem behavior during imprisonment as well as to validly predict recidivism within 2 and 5 years after release from prison. In contrast, for native German offenders (n?=114) the LSI-R performed satisfactorily in predicting problematic behavior during imprisonment and achieved a moderate to high level of predictive power in predicting recidivism after release from prison. These findings stress the necessity for research on influencing factors, developmental dynamics and prognosis among young violent offenders with a migrant background from a predominantly Muslim culture.     

Community-based co-occurring disorder (COD) intermediate and advanced treatment for offenders

Against a backdrop of increasing concern about the adequacy of treatment for co-occurring substance use and mental disorders (typically known as "co-occurring disorders," or COD) in the criminal justice system, this article attempts to provide empirical evidence for a typology of levels of COD treatment for offenders in both prison and community settings. The paper investigates two levels of treatment programs for COD; "intermediate" programs, in which treatment programming has been designed primarily for offenders with a single disorder, and "advanced" programs, in which programming has been designed to provide integrated substance abuse treatment and mental health services. Findings from a national survey of program directors indicated that both intermediate and advanced COD treatment programs were similar in their general approach to substance abuse treatment, but differed considerably in their treatment of mental disorders, where the advanced programs employed significantly more evidence- and consensus-based practices. Results provide support for the distinction between intermediate- and advanced-level services for offenders with COD and support a typology that defines advanced programs as integrating a range of evidence- and consensus-based practices so as to modify treatment sufficiently to address both diseases.     

Psychosis in German prisoners: Comparison of the clinical appearance of psychotic disorder of an imprisoned population with a not detained community group

Surveys confirm risk factors for the incarceration of patients with psychosis including homelessness and comorbidity. There is also agreement that severe psychosis can lead to violence. Data describing prisoners with psychosis in Germany are scarce. We aimed to compare patients with psychosis in a prison hospital and patients with psychosis in a community hospital. Demographic data were collected, as well as comorbidity in the form of substance dependence and a psychiatric assessment using the German version of the 18-item Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS) and the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). In the prison hospital group more patients were homeless (17 versus 2%) and non-German (36 versus 4%). There were also more patients with substance dependence or abuse in the prison hospital group. The total scores of BPRS and PANSS were lower in the prison hospital group (BPRS, 43.8 versus 51.2; PANSS, 71.5 versus 83.7). We assume that social disintegration for mentally disturbed offenders prior to incarceration hindered effective treatment. To avoid further social disintegration and possible further deterioration of mental health status of released offenders, which may lead to reoffending after imprisonment, discharge management after release from prison should be improved.     

An Examination of Triarchic Psychopathy Constructs in Female Offenders

This study sought to expand scientific knowledge on psychopathic personality traits in female offenders by evaluating the relationship between MMPI–2–RF triarchic scales and self-reported external variables in a sample of 205 female offenders. Results indicated that boldness was inversely related to internalizing dysfunction, including suicidal behavior, psychosis, youth conduct problems, problems stemming from alcohol use, and a history of outpatient mental health treatment. Meanness was positively related to internalizing dysfunction as well as youth conduct problems, anger, prison disciplinary reports, and psychosis. Disinhibition was associated with a history of abuse in childhood, suicidal behavior, internalizing dysfunction, problems associated with alcohol and drug use, family history of mental illness, prison disciplinary reports for violence, number of previous criminal charges, and anger. Consistent with views of psychopathy as a configural condition, interactive effects of boldness with disinhibition and meanness were observed for multiple key external variables (e.g., conduct problems, substance use, nonsuicidal self-injurious behavior). This study provides further evidence for the triarchic conceptualization of psychopathy in female offenders and lends additional support for the validity of MMPI–2–RF triarchic psychopathy scales.     

"Motherhood starts in prison": the experience of motherhood among women in prison

This study aims to explore the way in which women prisoners in Israel experience motherhood in prison and construct their motherhood after being released. In-depth interviews were conducted with 9 women, and the data were analyzed according to the phenomenological approach. The qualitative methodology generated 5 main themes: (a) motherhood in prison as a motive for survival; (b) the sense of failure experienced by mothers in prison; (c) coping versus avoidance in the mother-child relationship during imprisonment; (d) motherhood in prison as a motive for change; and (e) the transition from questioning the right to be a mother to redeeming motherhood. The 5 themes were organized into a model that depicts the process of becoming a mother in prison and the move toward mending the experience of motherhood. The findings indicate that side by side with the traumatic experiences of prison are other aspects that allow for growth and rehabilitation. The discussion focuses on 2 main issues that evolved from the findings: the reasons for the change in motherhood that occurs during imprisonment and the aspects of prison that enable this change.     

Validity of factors of the Psychopathy Checklist--Revised in female prisoners: discriminant relations with antisocial behavior, substance abuse, and personality

The validity of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) has been examined extensively in men, but its validity for women remains understudied. Specifically, the correlates of the general construct of psychopathy and its components as assessed by PCL-R total, factor, and facet scores have yet to be examined in depth. Based on previous research conducted with male offenders, a large female inmate sample was used to examine the patterns of relations between total, factor, and facet scores on the PCL-R and various criterion variables. These variables include ratings of psychopathy based on Cleckley's criteria, symptoms of antisocial personality disorder, and measures of substance use and abuse, criminal behavior, institutional misconduct, interpersonal aggression, normal range personality, intellectual functioning, and social background variables. Results were highly consistent with past findings in male samples and provide further evidence for the construct validity of the PCL-R two-factor and four-facet models across genders.     

A Feminist Examination of Boot Camp Prison Programs for Women

Abstract

Penal law in the United States reflects a strict moral ideology. This moral philosophy has dictated the laws that govern women and the punishments that they receive. Therefore, correctional programming for women has been focused on punishment and has not addressed the needs and problems of women inmates. Boot camp programs (shock incarceration), a low-cost, short-term alternative to traditional prison programming, are one example of such programming. Correctional boot camps teach discipline and responsibility by “breaking down and building up” inmates so that they will no longer commit crimes. However, the assumption that female offenders commit crimes because they are lacking in discipline and responsibility has not been substantiated by research. In addition, feminist therapy theory is not consistent with some boot camp practices. This paper will examine the social context of female criminality and the resulting implications for prison programming for women, and boot camp practices will be examined in the context of feminist therapy practices.     

Gender differences in comorbid disorders among offenders in prison substance abuse treatment programs

This study examined gender differences in a range of lifetime psychiatric disorders in a sample of 272 offenders newly admitted to a prison substance abuse program. Although these men and women did not differ in severity of substance use in the six months prior to incarceration, women were significantly more likely than men to report a lifetime psychiatric disorder and a lifetime severe disorder. Furthermore, gender differences emerged in the pattern of lifetime psychiatric comorbidity. Women reported greater lifetime major depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, eating disorder, and borderline personality disorder; men were more likely than women to meet criteria for antisocial personality disorder. Additionally, female offenders were found to have a higher degree of internalizing disorders than male offenders, but there were no gender differences in degree of externalizing disorders. The study concluded that women offenders newly admitted to a prison substance abuse program present with a greater psychiatric vulnerability and a different pattern of psychiatric comorbidity than their male counterparts.     

Predicting physically violent misconduct in prison: A comparison of four risk assessment instruments

Violence in correctional facilities is an important issue for both prisoners and prison staff. Risk assessment instruments have demonstrated their accuracy in predicting the risk of (re) offending and institutional violence in psychiatric settings, but less is known about their ability to predict violent misconduct in prison. The present study applied four risk assessment instruments (Structured Assessment of Protective Factors for violence risk, Historical Clinical Risk Management‐20, Psychopathy checklist – Revised, and Violent Risk Appraisal Guide) to 52 violent offenders in a Swiss prison in order to evaluate the instruments' predictive validities. Outcomes were instances of physically violent, other and any misconduct as recorded in prison files during the 12 months following the prisoners' assessments. Approximately 15% of offenders committed physically violent misconduct and approximately 42% committed any misconduct. The results show that mainly dynamic assessment tools are as good predictors of physically violent misconduct as mainly static assessment tools. Targeting dynamic factors could increase the effectiveness of interventions to reduce the risk of physical violence in prison.     

FACTORS THAT AFFECT NONTRADITIONAL VOCATIONAL ENROLLMENT AMONG WOMEN

This study identified the internal (personality) and external (social support) factors that differentiate women who enter male-dominated (Nontraditional) vocational training programs from those who only consider entering such programs (Considereds) and from those who enter female-dominated (Traditional) programs. Four hundred seventy women who were enrolled in California vocational training programs and were stratified on both social class and type of vocational training site completed a self-administered questionnaire covering (1) demographic/family background, (2) social support/encouragement from others, (3) peer experience with nontraditional programs, and (4) personality and sex-role orientation results revealed that the student subgroups differed most significantly in the amount of support, encouragement, and discouragement they received from the important others in their lives. Nontraditional students differed from Traditional students primarily in the support of female friends and family members, and from Considereds in encouragement from school personnel Recommendations are made for steps that can be taken to foster equality of educational opportunity.     

Religious Beliefs,Religious Contexts,and Perceived Interactions with Ex-Offenders

Religious institutions can provide a means of support and resources for many people, particularly, individuals who have criminal histories, specifically parolees, sex offenders, and insanity acquittees. When these individuals are released into the community, they often face difficulties in acquiring shelter, work, and social support. Out of their own volition or as a result of faith-based prison programs, they might turn to religious institutions for help reintegrating into the community. However, whether congregation members are more or less accepting of these individuals is unaddressed in the current literature. Two studies assess the relationship between religious beliefs, religious contexts, legal attitudes, and perceived social interactions with parolees, sex offenders, and insanity acquittees. Results suggest that religious beliefs, legal attitudes, and religious contexts play an important role in individuals’ perceived interactions with these individuals. Religious contexts, specifically, might facilitate more positive social interactions with parolees. Implications are discussed.