Children's hostile attribution bias is reduced after watching realistic playful fighting, and the effect is mediated by prosocial thoughts

Hostile attribution bias (HAB) has been found to characterize aggressive children. Watching prosocial media has been shown to have positive effects on children, and the general learning model has been used to account for these observations. This study tested the hypotheses derived from this theory that exposure to playful fighting would lead to a reduction in HAB, both immediately and after a 1-day delay, and that this effect would be mediated by positive thoughts. Four studies exposed child participants (N=242) to playful fighting versus neutral behavior primes and then tested their HAB. In two studies, thoughts about playful fighting and about children were assessed and tested as mediators. The main hypotheses were supported. The positive effect of watching playful fighting on HAB was evident immediately but not after 1 day. This effect was mediated by positive thoughts. In line with the general learning model, watching playful fighting reduced HAB in children, and positive thoughts contribute to this effect. This extends the realm of the general learning model and suggests interventions to help children avoid aggression.     

Work Values of Jewish and Bedouin-Arab Youth in Israel

Abstract

Explanations for behaviors that emphasize the importance of biological or environmental factors have been a major theme in psychological discourse, yet they have not been adequately explored as attributional styles with distinct correlates. The present two studies examined this dimension of attribution through the systematic development and validation of the Environmental/Biological Attribution Scale (EBAS). A total of 602 Canadian university students took part in the research project. The research confirmed four hypotheses: Biologically oriented attributional styles were significantly correlated with the same styles as measured by an alternate form (r = .76), with authoritarianism (r = .25), and with racism (r = .15). Environmentally oriented attributional styles were significantly correlated with attributions concerning the importance of strength of will (r = .39).     

Season of Birth and Personality: Another Instance of Noncorrespondence

Abstract

A systematic relation between season of birth and personality variables has been postulated from different theoretical standpoints. The present study was especially aimed at an empirical comparison of the positions of astrology and chronobiology, considering also the possibility of an unspecified, not yet explicable relation between season of birth and personality. The hypotheses were formulated after the data for another, earlier study with completely different aims and hypotheses had been collected. In it, 154 women had been tested with paper-and-pencil self-report inventories (the Guilford-Zimmerman, 1949, Temperament Survey and Budner's, 1962, Scale of Intolerance of Ambiguity) and an experimentally oriented cognitive test battery with 10 different tasks. For the present study, these data were submitted to a further analysis that considered the previously ignored influence of season of birth. These hypothetical influences could not be demonstrated with a significance greater than could have been expected by chance. In comparison to the much larger sample sizes of some other studies, the empirical argument has its definite limits. In addition to the empirical results in the discussion, the different standpoints are compared in respect to their theoretical deductive arguments.     

Maternal Sensitivity and Anxiety: Impacts on Child Outcome

ABSTRACT

Children of anxious parents have been shown to be at an increased risk of developing an anxiety disorder. Thus, it is critically important to identify factors that increase or decrease that risk. The depression literature has shown that maternal sensitivity decreases negative child outcome associated with maternal depression. The current study was designed to determine whether maternal sensitivity may buffer children of anxious mothers in a similar way. Three hypotheses were tested. First, that anxious mothers would display less sensitivity than nonanxious mothers in interactions with their children; that there would be an interaction between sensitivity and anxiety on child outcome; and that sensitivity would account for variance in child outcome beyond that attributed to anxiety. One hundred and twenty-five mothers (75 anxious) and their children (ages 3–12) completed the study. Mothers were administered the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule-IV and Parent, and a subset also completed the Beck Anxiety Inventory. Children completed the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule-Child. Dyads also engaged in two interaction tasks (one cognitive, one social) which were coded for maternal sensitivity and three child outcome behaviors. Results showed that anxious mothers displayed less sensitivity in the social task but not in the cognitive task. An interaction between anxiety and sensitivity was found only when predicting child negativity in the social task. Finally, maternal sensitivity was found to account for variance in child outcome beyond that of anxiety. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

Relationships between restrictive mother-child interactions and anxiety of the child

Abstract

The “two-process model” postulates that there are specific associations between patterns of parental child-rearing styles and the development of the child's anxiety and coping dispositions. Besides parameters of parental feedback to the child, this model considers support and restriction to be the central dimensions of child-rearing behavior. The present study aims at assessing behavioral indicators for restriction. For this purpose, the working and intervention behavior of 47 mothers and their ten- to 13-year-old children was observed and registered during a 15-minute period of common problem-solving (putting together a difficult puzzle-like cube). In order to register processes of problem-oriented cooperation between mother and child, transitional probabilities between defined state and event classes were analyzed. Based on the theoretical definition of the child-rearing style “restrictio”, hypotheses concerning the significance of variable transitional probabilities are formulated and tested regarding their correspondence with anxiety-related characteristics of the child.     

Testing the Assumptions of Attribution Theory in India

Abstract

Although numerous studies have investigated Weiner's (Weiner et al., 1971) attribution theory, little of this work has been conducted outside the West. Thus, the cultural boundaries of the theory have not been well established. In the present research, the basic tenets of the theory were tested in a conservative Asian Indian setting by examining the patterns of causal attributions, task evaluations, affective responses, and predictions for future performance among Asian Indian students when task outcomes were similar or discrepant with initial expectancies. Patterns of sex differences were also examined. The results showed that high expectancy individuals attributed their success more than their failure to ability and were less outcome contingent in their affective and cognitive reactions to their performance than lower expectancy groups. Indian women held slightly lower generalized expectancies than Indian men and attributed outcomes less to ability if initial performance expectancies were not high. The general pattern of results showed that Weiner's theoretical model was quite generalizable to the non-Western Asian setting.     

Praising child compliance: Reinforcement or ritual?

Praising child compliance is a common therapeutic recommendation to parents with noncompliant children. There are currently no studies documenting the independent contribution of the praise component to successful parent training programs. Three projects were designed to evaluate the hypotheses underlying the use of contingent praise routines. Namely, it has been suggested that conduct-disordered children are relatively unresponsive to adult approval at pretreatment, yet become responsive by posttreatment. In contrast to the hypotheses, data indicated that child compliance levels were not associated with child responsivity to maternal social reinforces; noncompliant children were responsive to maternal praise both before and after treatment; child responsivity to maternal praise did not covary with successful treatment; previously noncompliant but successfully treated children continued to comply to maternal instructions after contingent praise was withdrawn; a nonclinic child demonstrated extensive compliance persistence in the absence of contingent praise. Praising child compliance appeared to be more of a polite ritual than an active therapeutic component for altering noncompliance.The author is grateful to the many students who have participated in these projects. Special thanks go to Lynn McIsaac, Lisa Grange, and Dan Anderson for their assistance with Project 3.     

The role of causal attributions in competitive situations

Previous data have shown that successful women are judged to have masculine characteristics [J. A. Doyle (1989), The Male Experience(2nd ed.), Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown; D. L. Gill (1986), Psychological Dynamics of Sport,Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; D. J. Murphy (1988), “Sport and Gender,” in W. M. Leonard II (Ed.), A Sociological Perspective of Sport(3rd ed.), New York: Macmillan; P. Willis (1994), “Women in Sport in Ideology,” in S. Birrell and C. L. Cole (Eds.), Women, Sport, and Culture,Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics]. Two experiments were conducted to test two different explanations for this effect, the appraisal and attribution hypotheses. In Experiment 1, male participants who lost to a female confederate on a masculine-relevant task rated her as having more masculine and fewer feminine characteristics than when the task was described as feminine-relevant. However, heart rate and blood pressure data failed to support the appraisal hypothesis that these reactions were due to the stress of losing to the female, or defensiveness. The alternative hypothesis that these ratings were due to standard attributional processes was more consistent with the data. Consequently, this hypothesis was tested in Experiment 2 using an attributional paradigm. Consistent with Experiment 1, the attribution hypothesis fared better than did the appraisal hypothesis.     

Why is the receipt of social support associated with increased psychological distress? an examination of three hypotheses

Abstract

Although there is a great deal of research linking social support with favourable psychological well-being outcomes a number of contradictory findings have been published showing support to be associated with increased psychological distress. These contrary findings arise when social support is measured as the receipt of supportive behavior rather than perceptions of support availability and quality. This paper examines three hypotheses that have been advanced to explain why the receipt of support is associated with distress. The first of these hypotheses (the support mobilisation hypothesis) argues that the relationship is a spurious one, and that it is a product of distressing circumstances which increase both support receipt and psychological distress. The other two hypotheses (the inequity hypothesis and the esteem threat hypothesis) both argue that receiving support actually causes distress. We tested these hypotheses in two samples. One sample was a group of individuals who reported having some form of disability (N = 106). the other sample was a 'healthy' comparison group (N = 134). Our analyses showed that in both groups the receipt of support was significantly and positively related to reports of anxiety, but not to reports of depression. Among the 'healthy' sample, controlling for subjects' sex largely explained the positive association between support receipt and anxiety. This was not the case among the 'disabled sample, where the inequity hypothesis received the strongest support. The implications of these findings for interventions based around the provision of social support are examined.     

A Note on the Comparative Value of the “True” Index of Studiousness for the Purpose of Prognosis

It was hypothesized that observers would be less inclined to expect a person to shift from one task to another when the initial task had been chosen than when it had been assigned, and when costs incurred while working on the initial task could not be recouped. Choice was also hypothesized to favor attribution of preference for the initial task and optimism concerning its completion, while unrecoupable costs were expected to encourage the attribution of preference but inhibit the attribution of optimism. It was also hypothesized that the effects of choice on attributed preference and optimism would be negated by the individual's failure to shift tasks at the earliest opportunity, but the effects of unrecoupable costs would not be. Ss were 188 male undergraduates who twice responded to paper-and-pencil instruments while watching video-taped experimental sessions. The manipulations created a 2 × 2 × 2 design. All hypotheses were supported. It was concluded that unrecoupable costs establish a strong and lasting presumption of commitment, whereas the effects of choice vs. assignment tend not to persist in the face of contradictory evidence.     

An exploratory study of undergraduates' attributions of success or failure on spatial tests

Seven spatial tests from the CTY Spatial Test Battery and four subscales of an attribution scale were administered to 23 female and 28 male undergraduates. Three hypotheses were tested. The seven spatial tests and three of the attribution subscales were found reliable; sex differences were found for the spatial tests but not the attribution scales; and subjects' attributions did not predict spatial performance.     

The national council on family relations

Abstract

This study tested two hypotheses concerning the nature of family rules about affect which were derived from the systems models of Satir (1967, 1972); Satir, Stachowiak and Taschman (1975); Turner and Gross (1976); and Umana, Gross and Turner (1978). The major hypotheses examined were: 1) family members share common rules about how they should handle their affect and 2) family rules about handling affect differentiate families according to their level of adjustment. Fifty-four family triads of father, mother and an adolescent child filled out questionnaires designed to measure how family members believed that they should behave (ideal) in affective situations and also how they perceived themselves behaving (actual) in the same situations. The results indicated support for the first hypothesis but not for the second. Alternative explanations of the data were offered including the idea that the questionnaire tapped social norms.     

tolerance of nonconformity and its effect on attitudes toward the legalization of prostitution: a multivariate analysis

An increasingly popular clinical impression is that physical victimization plays an important role in the etiology of bulimia. There are few data based studies, however, which have tested this belief. Therefore, data were collected to determine if those who have been victimized are more apt to be bulimic than those who have not been victimized. The four forms of victimization explored were rape, sexual molestation, child abuse and partner abuse. Only child abuse was statistically significantly related to bulimia in the bivariate analyses, although all relationships were in the predicted direction. In the multivariate analysis, severity of bulimic‐like symptoms was regressed on the four forms of victimization and on nine demographic characteristics. Child abuse was the only form of victimization related to the severity of symptoms, when controlling for the effects of the other variables. Contrary to clinical impressions, the effect of sexual molestation on severity of bulimic symptoms was negative, but not statistically significant. Among the demographic characteristics, only the number of sisters had a significant effect. The combined effect of being both bulimic as well as a victim did not increase the likelihood of seeking therapy for an eating disorder. The need for empirical evidence to verify clinical impressions is stressed.     

Sex Roles and the Desirability of Job Rewards,Expectations and Aspirations of Male versus Female Salespeople

Abstract

There have been numerous studies of the impact of sex-role stereotyping upon the preferences for job rewards and the difference between men and women. This study tests for such differences in a career field where men and women compete equally—commissioned residential real estate sales. Several new hypotheses were tested to include not only differences in desirability for job rewards, but also the expectancy of success in achieving them. There was little evidence of any differences between men and women in this career field resulting from a sex-role impact.     

Evidence-based practice implementation and staff emotional exhaustion in children's services

Understanding the implementation of evidence-based practice (EBP) in community service settings is critical for the successful translation of research to practice. However, we have limited research evidence about the impact of EBP implementation on the mental health and social service workforce. In a previous study we demonstrated reduced staff turnover where an EBP was implemented with fidelity monitoring in the form of supportive ongoing supervision and consultation. Other research has shown that staff burnout and emotional exhaustion in particular is associated with poor quality of care and increased staff turnover intentions and turnover. Current research, however, has focused less on the effects that EBP implementation may have on staff emotional exhaustion. The present study investigates the association of EBP implementation and fidelity monitoring with staff emotional exhaustion in a statewide EBP implementation study. The 21 case-management teams in this study were randomized in a 2 (EBP vs. services as usual [SAU]) by 2 (monitoring vs. no monitoring) design. The EBP in this study was SafeCare^®, a home-based intervention that aims to reduce child neglect in at-risk families. SafeCare was developed from a behavior analysis approach and is based in cognitive behavioral principles. In keeping with our previous research, we hypothesized that providers implementing SafeCare with monitoring would have the lowest levels of emotional exhaustion and those receiving additional monitoring not in the context of EBP implementation would have higher emotional exhaustion relative to the other groups. Results supported our hypotheses in that we found lower emotional exhaustion for staff implementing the EBP but higher emotional exhaustion for staff receiving only fidelity monitoring and providing SAU. Together, these results suggest a potential staff and organizational benefit to EBP implementation and we discuss implications of the findings relative to EBPs and to fidelity monitoring.     

The Fundamental Attribution Error and Harman's Case against Character Traits

Abstract

Gilbert Harman argues that the warrant for the lay attribution of character traits is completely undermined by the “fundamental attribution error” (FAE). He takes it to have been established by social psychologists, that the FAE pervades ordinary instances of lay person perception. However, examination of recent work in psychology reveals that there are good reasons to doubt that the effects observed in experimental settings, which ground the case for the FAE, pervade ordinary instances of person perception. Furthermore, it is possible to make sense of these experimental results without invoking the FAE. Harman's argument against lay character trait attribution is unsubstantiated.     

Publications Received

SUMMARY

In this paper clinical examples are used to illustrate the view that transference to the diagnostician (and the institution) exists from the start of the process of assessment. It is also suggested that providing an analytic setting during an assessment will facilitate the emergence of both transference and counter-transference. Sensitivity to these can add greatly to the depth and richness of understanding of the object relationships and early situations being transferred, and hence add to the understanding of the character structure and psychopathology of the child. The deeper the understanding that can be reached in an assessment, the more likely it is that any diagnostic formulation will have validity and value in generating hypotheses and in directing any further intervention. An assessment not making use of these concepts would seem to be ignoring an important dimension which psycho-analytic theory and technique can offer.     

Boys will be boys (and girls will be girls): The attribution of gender role stereotypes in a gaming situation

This study tested one hypothesis concerning the attribution of gender role stereotypes about competitive behavior and three hypotheses concerning differences in attribution of sex between male and female subjects. The study used a Prisoner's Dilemma Game setting to expose subjects to one of three conditions (competitive, cooperative, or tit-for-tat) to measure attribution of sex to an unknown confederate. A chi-square analysis revealed significant differences in the attribution of sex to the anonymous confederate between the competitive and the combined cooperative and tit-for-tat groups. In the competitive condition, subjects were more prone to think that the anonymous confederate was male than were subjects in the cooperative and tit-for-tat condition. This finding is consistent with the gender role stereotype that generally associates competitive behavior with masculinity and not with femininity. Post hoc chi-squares also revealed no difference between male and female subjects in the attribution of sex in any of the three conditions. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

Testing the BIAS Map Model: The Positive Effects of Perceiving Weakness and Harmony in Powerful Out-Groups

ABSTRACT

Two experimental studies were used to test predictions derived from the BIAS map model. While the first experiment manipulated the perception of power in the out-group (the USA), the second manipulated the perceived harmony of the relationships between this out-group and the participants' own national group. The results confirmed the hypotheses derived from the model. The manipulation of power affected the perception of competence, thus affecting emotions and behavioral dispositions towards out-group members. The manipulation of perceived harmony of intergroup interests had a similar effect, but was not mediated by changes in the attribution of competence, but of warmth. Attitudes did not play a significant role in the prediction of emotions and behavioral intentions.     

Collaborating on Family Safety

Summary

The problems of child maltreatment and violence against women have traditionally been viewed and treated as two distinct issues. In response to these two forms of family violence, two separate service systems with different approaches to prevention, treatment and intervention have developed. This article outlines sources of conflicts between child protection workers and battered women's advocates, and elaborates on these conflicts using child protection workers' and battered women's advocates' own words elicited in a series of focus groups. Models of cross-system collaboration in the United States are then described, and recommendations are made for practice and policy which support collaboration across systems.