Social categorization and intergroup behaviour

The aim of the studies was to assess the effefcs of social categorization on intergroup behaviour when, in the intergroup situation, neither calculations of individual interest nor previously existing attitudes of hostility could have been said to have determined discriminative behaviour against an outgroup. These conditions were satisfied in the experimental design. In the first series of experiments, it was found that the subjects favoured their own group in the distribution of real rewards and penalities in a situation in which nothing but the variable of fairly irrelevant classification distinguished between the ingroup and the outgroup. In the second series of experiments it was found that: 1) maximum joint profit independent of group membership did not affect significantly the manner in which the subjects divided real pecuniary rewards; 2) maximum profit for own group did affect the distribution of rewards; 3) the clearest effect on the distribution of rewards was due to the subjects' attempt to achieve a maximum difference between the ingroup and the outgroup even at the price of sacrificing other ‘objective’ advantages. The design and the results of the study are theoretically discussed within the framework of social norms and expectations and particularly in relation to a ‘generic’ norm of outgroup behaviour prevalent in some societies.     

Social categorization and similarity in intergroup behaviour

The present study is one of a series exploring the role of social categorization in intergroup behaviour. It has been found in our previous studies that in ?minimal' situations, in which the subjects were categorized into groups on the basis of visual judgments they had made or of their esthetic preferences, they clearly discriminated against members of an outgroup although this gave them no personal advantage. However, in these previous studies division into groups was still made on the basis of certain criteria of ?real' similarity between subjects who were assigned to the same category. Therefore, the present study established social categories on an explicitly random basis without any reference to any such real similarity. It was found that, as soon as the notion of ?group' was introduced into the situation, the subjects still discriminated against those assigned to another random category. This discrimination was considerably more marked than the one based on a division of subjects in terms of interindividual similarities in which the notion of ?group' was never explicitly introduced. In addition, it was found that fairness was also a determinant of the subjects' decisions. The results are discussed from the point of view of their relevance to a social-cognitive theory of intergroup behaviour.     

Social identity,relative group status and intergroup attitudes: when favourable outcomes change intergroup relations…for the worse

This study examines in a natural setting (N = 253) the effects of favourable outcomes at the individual and group levels on the relations between members of high (nondisabled) and low (disabled) status groups. Consistent with past research, the results show that, overall, high‐status group members are more likely than low‐status group members to display ingroup bias. Furthermore, as hypothesized on the basis of the role of relative gratification in intergroup relations, a favourable group outcome led high‐status group members to derogate the low‐status outgroup. On the other hand, as predicted from the assumption that outgroup favouritism reflects a strategy of individual mobility, a favourable individual outcome led low‐status group members to display an evaluative bias in favour of, and to identify with, the high‐status outgroup. The implications of these findings for the explanation of outgroup favouritism and outgroup derogation are discussed. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Perceived acculturation preferences of minority groups and intergroup discrimination: When culture‐specific intergroup norms matter

The present research seeks to show that culture‐specific variables can moderate the impact of general determinants of intergroup discrimination, usually assumed to operate identically across cultures. The present paper reports the results of two studies testing the hypothesis that, in France, the cultural norm of new laïcité (a French‐specific ideology of secularism) can moderate the impact of the perceived host culture adoption and national identification on discrimination against immigrants. We conducted a correlational study (Study 1, N = 249) and an experiment (Study 2, N = 143) using two distinct and previously validated measures of intergroup discrimination. Results showed that the higher the perception of a norm of new laïcité, the stronger the link between host culture adoption and national identification. More specifically, among native French people, the perception of a weak host culture adoption and a weak national identification on the part of immigrants produced higher levels of discriminatory behavior especially when the intergroup norm of new laïcité was high. These studies highlight the fundamental importance of taking into account culture‐specific variables in the study of discrimination and point to the fact that, by changing the normative context, one may change intergroup behaviors. Reducing intergroup discrimination in applied settings may require targeting culture‐specific intergroup norms.     

Social identities and intergroup bias in immigrant and nonimmigrant children

Ethnic and American identity, as well as positivity and negativity toward multiple social groups, were assessed in 392 children attending 2nd or 4th grade in various New York City neighborhoods. Children from 5 ethnic groups were recruited, including White and Black Americans, as well as recent immigrants from China, the Dominican Republic, and the former Soviet Union. For ethnic minority children, greater positivity bias (evaluating one's ingroup more positively than outgroups) was predicted by immigrant status and ethnic identity, whereas negativity bias (evaluating outgroups more negatively than one's ingroup) was associated with increased age, immigrant status, and (among 4th graders only) ethnic identity. In addition, a more central American identity was associated with less intergroup bias among ethnic minority children.     

The role of immigrant acculturation preferences and generational status in determining majority intergroup attitudes

Two experiments (Ns = 220, 135) investigated the role of first and second generation immigrants' desire for Culture Maintenance and Intercultural Contact in affecting majority members' intergroup attitudes (2 × 2 × 2 design). Participants were presented with fictitious interviews through which immigrants' acculturation preferences and generational status were manipulated. Immigrants' desire for contact strongly affected host members' attitudes: those who were perceived to want contact elicited more favourable intergroup attitudes than those who did not. Desire for contact also moderated the relationship between immigrants' desire for culture maintenance and attitudes towards them: culture maintenance only stimulated favourable attitudes if the immigrant also expressed desire for contact. Immigrants' generational status and their desire for Culture Maintenance were found to interact, such that less favourable attitudes were shown towards second generation immigrants refusing their heritage culture. Psychological processes mediating these effects were investigated, finding evidence for symbolic threat, appreciation for multiculturalism and metastereotypes. Overall, the results suggest that both immigrants' generational status and acculturation attitudes should be taken into account when studying intergroup attitudes of dominant groups and in planning interventions for the improvement of intercultural relations.     

Becoming us and them: Social learning and intergroup bias

In recent years, research has demonstrated that the basic features of prejudice and discrimination emerge early in children's development. These discoveries call into question the role of social learning in intergroup bias. Specifically, through what means do we learn to distinguish “us” from “them?” Here, we explore this question, focusing on three key issues: how children respond to biased information they receive from others, how children selectively seek out certain types of biased information, and how children communicate biased information to others. We close by discussing the implications of this research for interventions to reduce stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination.     

Social identity threat and consumer preferences

Although marketers often link brands with an aspect of consumer social identity, the current research demonstrates that such brand-identity linkages may sometimes have negative consequences. Consumers motivated to protect and maintain feelings of individual self-worth alter their product evaluations and choices to avoid a threatened aspect of their own social identity. Whereas those low in collective self-esteem (CSE) tend to exhibit such identity avoidance effects, those high in CSE maintain associations with an identity-linked brand even when that social identity is threatened. Moreover, when the consumer feels positively about the self via self-affirmation, the effect among low CSE consumers is mitigated. Finally, it is demonstrated that differences in the use of identity as a resource underlie the effects.     

Psychophysiological assessment of change in erotic preferences

The difficulties involved in validating effectiveness of the various therapies of anomalous erotic preferences are often underestimated. Basically, methods of physiological assessment of erotic preferences would appear to be promising. However they still pose considerable problems. There are two kinds of such methods, those where measurement of general arousal is employed, and those which are based on assessment of sexual arousal proper. The former are only weak indicators of erotic preferences; the latter are to date represented only by assessment of penile volume changes to various kinds of potentially erotic stimuli (the phallometric test). The usefulness of the latter method in assessment of (therapeutic) changes in erotic preferences is basically limited to one particular situation only.Directions are pointed out in which this test is to be further developed to make it more generally useful as an indicator of (therapeutic) change in erotic preferences.     

Social comparison and social identity: Some prospects for intergroup behaviour

Recent studies have reported that the variable of social categorization per se is sufficient for intergroup discrimination. This paper presents an explanation of these findings in terms of the operation of social comparison processes between groups based on the need for a positive ingroup identity. The relationship between perceived social identity and intergroup comparison is elaborated theoretically, and it is argued that social comparisons give rise to processes of mutual differentiation between groups which can be analyzed as a form of ‘social’ competition. Social competition is distinguished from realistic competition (conflict of group interests). New data is reported which strengthens this interpretation of the ‘minimal’ categorization studies. It is found that minimal intergroup discrimination takes place in the distribution of meaningless ‘points’ as well as monetary rewards and that social categorization per se does not lead to intergroup behaviour where the subjects can act directly in terms of ‘self’. Other studies on intergroup biases are reviewed to argue for the generality of social competition in intergroup situations.     

Social influences on remembering: Intellectual,interpersonal and intergroup components

When people recall an event collaboratively we may expect the product to be influenced by the combined cognitive resources of the group, interpersonal acquaintance of the members, and social competition engendered by salient intergroup considerations. Using undergraduate students and serving police officers as subjects, a range of experimental conditions was established which varied on the three factors of cognitive resources of the participants (Cognitive Resources), interpersonal acquaintance of the participants (Interpersonal Acquaintance) and professional salience (Professional Salience) of the recall material. Participants answered a questionnaire concerning a police interrogation they had witnessed, and rated how much confidence they had in their answers. Multiple regression revealed statistically significant associations between (i) Cognitive Resources and number of correct answers, (ii) Interpersonal Acquaintance and confidence for implicational errors, and (iii) Professional Salience and (a) number of implicational errors and (b) confidence in confusional errors. The theoretical implications for our understanding of memory as a social process are discussed, and the practical implications for courtroom testimony briefly described.     

Social categorization and group‐motivated interindividual–intergroup discontinuity

Research on the interindividual–intergroup discontinuity effect has demonstrated that intergroup relations are often less cooperative than interindividual relations. The aim of the present paper is to test whether mere social categorization suffices to create a group‐motivated discontinuity effect. In two experiments, we manipulated actors' personal versus social identity salience, whereas controlling for actors' outcome independence (1 : 1) versus interdependence (3 : 3). Making actors' social identity salient using a minimal group treatment was sufficient to increase defection in a Prisoner's Dilemma Game, irrespective of whether this was in an interindividual or intergroup interaction (Experiment 1). Using a Mutual Fate Control matrix in Experiment 2, results indicate that this effect can be attributed to actors' increased motivation to maximize relative differences to outgroup opponents under social identity salience. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Guidance and Counseling in New Zealand

This article describes guidance and counseling in multicultural New Zealand as a professional service facing social change and supported by training, research, and a national association.     

Social identity and the perception of history: cultural representations of Aotearoa/New Zealand

The context of intergroup relations in Aotearoa/New Zealand was investigated using perceptions of history by Maori (Polynesian‐descended) and Pakeha (European‐descended) samples from university and the general public. There was strong consensus that the Treaty of Waitangi was the most important event in New Zealand's history, but only Maori, the subordinate ethnic group, showed in‐group favouritism in their judgments regarding the Treaty. Pakeha, the dominant group, showed outgroup favouritism, and distanced themselves from past injustices using linguistic strategies. Maori students showed interest in their ethnic origins (ontogeny), rating the distant past and Polynesian history higher, and free‐recalling more events prior to European arrival than other groups; Maori in the general population shared a more similar perception of history to Pakeha. Both in‐group favouritism and ontogeny were found in sentence‐completion choices. Historical perceptions were strongly related to positions on current political issues. Results are related to social identity theory, social representations theory, and social dominance theory. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Medical Psychology in New Zealand

This paper describes medical psychology and health psychology in New Zealand, particularly in relation to psychologists teaching in medical schools, psychologists working in general medical settings, and health psychologists. It identifies a reasonably slow but continuing consolidation of the discipline, particularly from a research perspective, but also with therapeutic initiatives in the public and private health sector. The potential for increased activity in health promotion and increased psychological analysis and influence in the health system is identified.     

Counselling psychology in New Zealand

This article offers a brief overview of the history of counselling psychology in New Zealand. It describes current postgraduate study options and registration pathways as well as the institutions and organisations that provide legislative and professional membership and support to counselling psychologists in New Zealand. Data collected from a national survey in 2014 provide insight into the demographics of the profession in New Zealand, the theoretical frameworks that are utilised and employment opportunities that exist for counselling psychologists. The article also highlights the uniqueness of a cultural and contextual approach that aligns itself with New Zealand’s founding document, the Treaty of Waitangi/te Tiriti o Waitangi which is based on the principles of partnership, participation and protection. It concludes with the challenges the profession face as a new scope of practice. These challenges include establishing a professional identity in the mental health delivery system in New Zealand and responding to an ever increasing multicultural society.     

Career Counseling in New Zealand

The author examines articles published in a special issue of the New Zealand Journal of Counselling that highlight career topics in New Zealand. Parallels are drawn between these topics and similar ones identified by M. Savickas (2003a) for advancing career counseling in the United States. The author argues that the similarity of career issues in both New Zealand and the United States indicates that these issues are universal concerns and need to be addressed for career counseling to develop as a profession.     

Social class differences produce social group preferences

Some social groups are higher in socioeconomic status than others and the former tend to be favored over the latter. The present research investigated whether observing group differences in wealth alone can directly cause children to prefer wealthier groups. In Experiment 1, 4–5‐year‐old children developed a preference for a wealthy novel group over a less wealthy group. In Experiment 2, children did not develop preferences when groups differed by another kind of positive/negative attribute (i.e. living in brightly colored houses vs. drab houses), suggesting that wealth is a particularly meaningful group distinction. Lastly, in Experiment 3, the effect of favoring novel wealthy groups was moderated by group membership: Children assigned to a wealthy group showed ingroup favoritism, but those assigned to a less wealthy group did not. These experiments shed light on why children tend to be biased in favor of social groups that are higher in socioeconomic status.     

Interventions to change well‐anchored attitudes in the context of intergroup conflict

Changing attitudes is one of the most challenging and important endeavors social psychologists have undertaken in order to promote better quality of life for individuals and collectives. However, when addressing pressing issues, such as intergroup conflict, racism, and inequality, changing attitudes is particularly difficult as individuals are often frozen in their attitudes. Based on the important work of conflict‐resolution scholars and practitioners, we report several well‐known and new socio‐psychological interventions that have been developed to unfreeze attitudes, especially in the context of intergroup conflict. These include providing contradictory information, paradoxical thinking, enlightening individual shortcomings, teaching skills, and the informative process model. We conclude by assessing the lessons learned from the research and practice of psychological interventions, focusing on their application in the field, and the value of increased cooperation between researchers and practitioners.