Modelling the theory of planned behaviour and past behaviour

This paper demonstrated two modelling techniques and three interpretations for the inclusion of past behaviour in a theory of planned behaviour (TPB) framework using structural equation modelling. Model 1 examined past behaviour as either a causal influence or as an autoregressive influence on current behaviour. Model 2 demonstrated a novel approach to including past behaviour and current behaviour while preserving the tenets of the TPB, as it freed the residual correlation between past and present behaviour but not the causal path. Participants were 305 undergraduate students (mean age?=?19.42 years) who completed measures of the TPB, past exercise behaviour and current exercise behaviour at one-month follow-up. Results demonstrated the importance of a priori conceptualization of past behaviour, as the models provide differences between estimated coefficients. Subsequent interpretation and decision to use each modelling strategy depends on the research objective and theory.     

The effect of self‐identity alongside perceived importance within the theory of planned behaviour

Self‐identity often predicts behavioural intentions after standard theory of planned behaviour (TPB) components are accounted for. However, it has been claimed this is due to conceptual similarity between self‐identity and perceived importance of the behaviour. We examined this claim within the context of recycling food waste. Participants (N = 113) completed questionnaires assessing intentions, attitude, perceived behavioural control, perceived norms, perceived importance, self‐identity, and past behaviour. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that self‐identity and perceived importance were distinct constructs. Further, after accounting for TPB components and perceived importance, self‐identity explained a significant amount of additional variance in intentions. The present findings therefore do not support this particular argument against the predictive utility of self‐identity.     

The theory of planned behaviour: Reactions and reflections

The seven articles in this issue, and the accompanying meta-analysis in Health Psychology Review [McEachan, R.R.C., Conner, M., Taylor, N., & Lawton, R.J. (2011). Prospective prediction of health-related behaviors with the theory of planned behavior: A meta-analysis. Health Psychology Review, 5, 97–144], illustrate the wide application of the theory of planned behaviour [Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211] in the health domain. In this editorial, Ajzen reflects on some of the issues raised by the different authors. Among the topics addressed are the nature of intentions and the limits of predictive validity; rationality, affect and emotions; past behaviour and habit; the prototype/willingness model; and the role of such background factors as the big five personality traits and social comparison tendency.     

The theory of planned behaviour: reactions and reflections

The seven articles in this issue, and the accompanying meta-analysis in Health Psychology Review [McEachan, R.R.C., Conner, M., Taylor, N., & Lawton, R.J. (2011). Prospective prediction of health-related behaviors with the theory of planned behavior: A meta-analysis. Health Psychology Review, 5, 97-144], illustrate the wide application of the theory of planned behaviour [Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179-211] in the health domain. In this editorial, Ajzen reflects on some of the issues raised by the different authors. Among the topics addressed are the nature of intentions and the limits of predictive validity; rationality, affect and emotions; past behaviour and habit; the prototype/willingness model; and the role of such background factors as the big five personality traits and social comparison tendency.     

Contact sports, moral functioning and planned behaviour theory

The goal was to test the psychometric properties of the Moral Functioning Scale in a Greek athletic context, and to investigate any possible relation between moral functioning and planned behaviour. The sample comprised 384 athletes, 103 from the sport of football (soccer), 97 from basketball, and 184 from water polo. To measure moral functioning the researchers used a scale developed by Gibbons, Ebbeck, and Weiss. Planned Behaviour was assessed with a questionnaire based on Planned Behaviour Theory. Hierarchical regression analysis indicated strong association for Attitudes, Intention, Role Identity, and Perceived Behavioural Control with the four dilemmas of the moral functioning scale. The moral reasoning measure is a promising tool for measuring athletes' moral dilemmas in Greece.     

From attitudes to behaviour: Basic and applied research on the theory of planned behaviour

The present article traces the development of the theory of planned behaviour, from early research on the attitude-behaviour relationship through the theory of reasoned action. In particular, it is argued that a perceived lack of correspondence between attitude and behaviour led to examination of variables that either moderated (e.g., attitude strength, measurement correspondence) or mediated (behavioural intention) the relationship between attitudes and behaviour. Several meta-analytic reviews provide strong empirical support for the theory of planned behaviour, yet several applied and basic issues need to be resolved. The six papers that make up the remainder of this special issue address several of these issues.     

From attitudes to behaviour: Basic and applied research on the theory of planned behaviour

The present article traces the development of the theory of planned behaviour, from early research on the attitude-behaviour relationship through the theory of reasoned action. In particular, it is argued that a perceived lack of correspondence between attitude and behaviour led to examination of variables that either moderated (e.g., attitude strength, measurement correspondence) or mediated (behavioural intention) the relationship between attitudes and behaviour. Several meta-analytic reviews provide strong empirical support for the theory of planned behaviour, yet several applied and basic issues need to be resolved. The six papers that make up the remainder of this special issue address several of these issues.     

Self‐esteem and its relationship to bullying behaviour

From the rapidly growing literature on bullying, it is increasingly recognised that peer relationship problems as manifested in being bullied are associated with low self‐esteem. However, the literature on self‐esteem in relation to children who bully others is controversial. The objective of this paper is to elucidate further our understanding of the relationship between self‐concept and bullying behaviour. Data from a nationwide study of bullying behaviour carried out in Ireland during 1993‐1994 have been reviewed. The relevant results from 8,249 school children aged 8 to 18 years are presented. The paper examines the global and dimensional nature of self‐esteem and how it relates to children and adolescents who either have been victimised or bullied others. A distinction is made between “pure victims,” “pure bullies,” and children and adolescents who were both bullied and who bullied others. In other words, pure victims were those who had not bullied others, and pure bullies had not themselves been bullied. Those who were both bullied and bullied others were subdivided further into victims who bully occasionally, sometimes, and frequently and bullies who are victimised, occasionally, sometimes, and frequently. The results show that children of both primary and post‐primary age who were involved in bullying as victims, bullies, or both had significantly lower global self‐esteem than did children who had neither bullied nor been bullied. However, the pure bullies, in contrast to the pure victims, placed the same value on their physical attractiveness and attributes and on their popularity as did their peers who had not bullied others or been bullied. The bully‐victims of all ages had the lowest self‐esteem of the subgroups in the study. Also, the more frequently children were victimised or bullied others, the lower was their global self‐esteem. The typology and frequency of bullying and the age of the children when they were involved in bullying influenced the status of the specific domains of self‐esteem. There were, e.g., significant differences in anxiety between the pure bullies of post‐primary age and their peers who had not bullied others or been bullied. The post‐primary children who bullied most frequently were the least anxious. The results indicate that high self‐esteem protects children and adolescents from involvement in bullying. Thus, in view of the strong relationship between self‐esteem and bullying that has been found in the present paper, it is recommended that top priority be given by parents and teachers to preventing and reducing feelings of poor self‐worth among children and adolescents. Aggr. Behav. 27:269–283, 2001. © 2001 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Statistical guidelines for studies of the theory of reasoned action and the theory of planned behaviour

Abstract

We identify potential problems in the statistical analysis of social cognition model data, with special emphasis on the theories of reasoned action (TRA) and planned behaviour (TPB). Some statistical guidelines are presented for empirical studies of the TRA and the TPB based upon multiple linear regression and structural equation modelling (SEM). If the model is tested using multiple regression, the assumptions of this technique must be considered and variables transformed if necessary. Adjusted R² (not R²) should be used as a measure of explained variance and semipartial correlations are useful in assessing each component's unique contribution to explained variance. R² is not an indicator of model adequacy and residuals should be examined. Expectancy-value variables that are the product of expectancy and value measures represent the interaction term in a multiple regression and should not be used. SEM approaches make explicit the assumptions of unidimensionality of constructs in the TRA/TPB, assumptions that might usefully be challenged by competing models with multidimensional constructs. Finally, statistical power and sample size should be considered for both approaches. Inattention to any of these aspects of analysis threatens the validity of TRA/TPB research.     

Addressing the cross‐country applicability of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB): A structured review of multi‐country TPB studies

The theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour (TRA/TPB) have received substantial research interest from consumer behaviourists. One important area of interest that has not been adequately researched concerns the impact of national culture on the TRA/TPB components and interrelationships. To date, no systematic assessment of the impact of culture on the TRA/TPB model relationships has been undertaken. In order to understand the potential impact of culture on the TRA/TPB model relationships, a structured review of TRA/TPB studies is undertaken. Studies that have quantitatively applied the TRA/TPB across at least two countries within a consumption domain since 2000 are reviewed. The authors propose that two of Hofstede's cultural dimensions, individualism and power distance, may moderate the TRA/TPB relationships. The review highlights that the impact of subjective norm on intention varies most across countries, with the relationship between intention and both attitude and perceived behavioural control operating more similarly across country samples. Further, a systematic assessment of variation in the TRA/TPB model relationships via multilevel modelling shows that only the subjective norm–intention relationship varies across the countries studied. The relationship between subjective norm and intention is found to be influenced by power distance, with a stronger relationship evident in high power distance cultures. This review is the first of its kind and is of significance in addressing the emic versus etic nature of the TRA/TPB. Importantly, the article outlines relevant avenues and recommendations for future cross‐national research utilizing the TRA/TPB. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The influences of intrinsic motivation on execution of social behaviour within the theory of planned behaviour

The present study examined the utility of two forms of measurement of intrinsic motivation in increasing the predictive validity of the theory of planned behaviour. Self‐report questionnaires were administered to school pupils (n = 174), University students (n = 129) and adults (n = 157). The data were analysed using confirmatory factor analysis and regression analysis. Confirmatory analysis supported discriminant validity between Forms A and B measures of intrinsic motivation. In addition, hierarchical regression analysis demonstrated that Form B measure of intrinsic motivation increased effectiveness of the theory of planned behaviour in predicting intentions and social behaviour. Further, the regression analysis showed that age and past behaviour did not reduce the effects observed for intrinsic motivation. It is recommended that intrinsic motivation could increase the predictive utility of the theory of planned behaviour. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mirror Self‐Recognition and Self‐Identification

That great apes are the only primates to recognise their reflections is often taken to show that they are self‐aware—however, there has been much recent debate about whether the self‐awareness in question is psychological or bodily self‐awareness. This paper argues that whilst self‐recognition does not require psychological self‐awareness, to claim that it requires only bodily self‐awareness would leave something out. That is that self‐recognition requires ‘objective self‐awareness’—the capacity for first person thoughts like ‘that's me’, which involve self‐identification and so are vulnerable to error through misidentification. This objective self‐awareness is distinct from bodily or psychological self‐awareness, requires cognitive sophistication and provides the beginnings of a more conceptual self‐representation which might play a role in planning, mental time travel and theory of mind.     

Predicting intentions to text and call while driving using the theory of planned behaviour

There is extensive evidence that using a mobile phone while driving causes degradation in driving performance, and thereby results in reduced safety on the road. The present study examined intentions to use mobile phones while driving using the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). A total of 212 Ukrainian drivers (mean age = 35 years SD = 10 years; males = 82%) completed a survey that included measures of the TPB components related to intentions to send or read text messages or to make or receive handheld phone calls across two different scenarios; one where they were running late, and the other when they were not in a hurry. Measures of the frequency of mobile phone use were also collected. The results showed that 63% of the sample reported using a mobile phone while driving at least daily, with the most frequent types of usage being making and answering a phone call with a handheld device. The most consistent predictor of intentions to interact with a mobile phone while driving was having a positive attitude towards doing so. Perceived behavioural control was also significantly and positively associated with mobile phone use while driving, but only a small number of associations were found with subjective norms. Our results suggest that intentions to interact with mobile phones while driving may be context specific.     

Using the theory of planned behaviour to predict screening uptake in two contexts

Given current policy that decisions about screening should be based on informed choice, such decisions should reflect people's values and attitudes. This prospective study compares the attitudes and other cognitive predictors of screening uptake in two contexts: when conducted as part of a routine visit and when it is conducted at a separate, test-specific visit. It was conducted in two hospitals in England, differing in method of screening organisation. 1499 pregnant women offered serum screening for Down Syndrome completed a questionnaire assessing theory of planned behaviour constructs: attitude towards undergoing the test, subjective norms of others, perceived behavioural control and intention to undergo the test.

Intention predicted screening uptake in both screening settings, but more strongly when screening was part of a routine visit. Perceived behavioural control was not predictive of uptake, and only weakly predictive of intention in both settings. Subjective norm predicted intention more strongly when it referred to partner and friends than when it referred to health professionals, in both settings.

Attitude was more strongly predictive of intention to attend screening when screening was organised as a part of routine screening, rather than requiring a separate visit. These results suggest that offering a screening test at a routine visit compared with a separate visit is more likely to facilitated uninformed choices, given the stronger association between attitudes and intention and the absence of an association with the perceived influence of health professionals.     

Smoking-specific communication and children's smoking onset: An extension of the theory of planned behaviour

The aim of this study was to test whether maternal smoking-specific communication and parental smoking related to smoking cognitions (i.e. attitude, self-efficacy and social norm) derived from the Theory of Planned Behaviour in association with smoking onset during preadolescence. A total of 1478 pairs of mothers and children participated (mean age: 10.11; standard deviation?=?0.78). Structural equation models in Mplus were used to examine whether smoking-specific communication influences children's smoking cognitions, which in turn, affect smoking onset. A positive association was found between pro-smoking attitudes and smoking onset. Smoking-specific communication and parental smoking were related to smoking cognitions. Specifically, frequency of communication was negatively associated with pro-smoking attitudes, social norms of mother and best friend. Quality of communication related negatively to pro-smoking attitudes and positively to self-efficacy and norms of friends. Parental smoking was positively associated with pro-smoking attitudes and norms of mother and (best) friends. Additionally, more frequent communication and higher levels of parental smoking were associated with higher smoking onset. In conclusion, smoking-specific communication and parental smoking were associated with smoking cognitions and smoking onset. Already during preadolescence, parents contribute to shaping the smoking cognitions of their children, which may be predictive of smoking later in life.