Correlates of the Egocentricity Index in child and adolescent outpatients

This study examined the Rorschach and MMPI covariates of Exner's Egocentricity Index, 3r + (2): R, in a sample of child and adolescent outpatients (n = 46). Consistent with previous findings on adult psychiatric inpatients (Barley, Dorr, & Reid, 1985), significant positive correlations were obtained between the Index and M, FM, X + %, and D when controlled for the number of protocol responses. The Egocentricity Index was negatively associated with lambda and, in a subsample of adolescents (n = 19), depression scores. The index bore no significant relationship to either Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) validity or clinical scales, also congruent with earlier investigations. Implications for the interpretation of childrens' Egocentricity Indices are discussed.     

Correlates of the Egocentricity Index in Child and Adolescent Outpatients

This study examined the Rorschach and MMPI covariates of Exner's Egocentricity Index, 3γ + (2): R, in a sample of child and adolescent outpatients (n = 46). Consistent with previous findings on adult psychiatric inpatients (Barley, Doff, & Reid, 1985), significant positive correlations were obtained between the Index and M, FM, χ + %, and D when controlled for the number of protocol responses. The Egocentricity Index was negatively associated with lambda and, in a subsample of adolescents (n = 19), depression scores. The index bore no significant relationship to either Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) validity or clinical scales, also congruent with earlier investigations. Implications for the interpretation of childrens' Egocentricity Indices are discussed.     

Weighing evidence for the Rorschach's validity: a response to Wood et al. (1999)

Wood, Nezworski, Stejskal, Garven, and West (1999) challenged Ganellen's (1996) characterization of the revised Rorschach Depression Index (DEPI; Exner, 1991) as a promising psychometric marker of depression that deserves serious attention by researchers and clinicians. To the contrary, however, a careful examination of existing studies indicates that no compelling empirical evidence exists indicating that Ganellen's conclusions should be modified at the present time, although no firm conclusions about the DEPI can be reached until further evidence accumulates. Furthermore, although Wood et al. (1999) suggested that evidence supporting the reliability and validity of the Rorschach in general is weak, ample evidence exists demonstrating that the Rorschach can be scored reliably (Meyer, 1997), that Rorschach variables in general have respectable levels of criterion-related validity (Bornstein, 1996; Hiller, Rosenthal, Bornstein, Berry, & Brunnel-Neuleib, 1999), and that the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI; Hathaway & McKinley, 1943) and Rorschach have comparable levels of criterion-related validity, with the MMPI outperforming the Rorschach in certain respects and the Rorschach outperforming the MMPI in others (Bornstein, 1999; Hiller et al, 1999).     

Relations Between Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–A Scales and Rorschach Variables With the Scope and Severity of Maltreatment Among Adolescents

This study examined preexisting Rorschach (Exner, 2001) and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–A (MMPI–A; Butcher et al., 1992) profiles to determine if selected MMPI–A scales and Rorschach variables would jointly associate with the number and severity of maltreatment subtypes (physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, and emotional maltreatment) of 157 adolescents (ages 14–17) with documented maltreatment histories. The Maltreatment Classification System was used to systematically code the maltreatment attributes. Six Rorschach variables (MOR, PER, Afr, SumY, SumC’, Human Content) were significantly correlated with the number of maltreatment subtypes, but none of the anticipated MMPI–A scales were related. MMPI–A Scale 7 and Rorschach variables Ego, MOR, and PER were jointly associated with physical abuse severity. MMPI–A Scale 0 and Rorschach variables MOR, PER, SumY, SumC’, PTI, Human Content, and Texture jointly associated with sexual abuse severity. This study supports the potential for certain MMPI–A scales and Rorschach variables to reflect the impact of adolescents’ maltreatment experiences in terms of the number and severity of types of maltreatment experienced. Because both instruments captured different aspects of adolescents’ maltreatment experiences, clinicians should consider using both when evaluating the impact of maltreatment on adolescents.     

MMPI correlates of Exner's Egocentricity Index in an adolescent psychiatric population

This research examined the relationship between Exner's Egocentricity Index (EI) and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) Scales 2, 4, and 9 in an adolescent psychiatric population. Subjects with a low EI had significantly higher MMPI Depression (D) scale elevations compared to those with a high EI. Furthermore, of the adolescents who had Scale 2 scores in the clinical range, 68% also had an EI in the bottom half of the distribution. There was no relationship between the EI and MMPI scales 4 and 9. These findings are discussed in light of the generally poor correlations between MMPI and Rorschach variables.     

Assessment of disordered thinking in children and adolescents: the rorschach perceptual-thinking index.

The new Rorschach Perceptual-Thinking Index (PTI; Exner, 2000a, 2000b) was designed to assess thought disorders more accurately than the Schizophrenia Index (SCZI; Exner, 1993). Using a sample of child and adolescent inpatients, we examined the relation of Rorschach variables (PTI, SCZI, M-, and X- %) to thought disorder indexes on a behavior rating scale (Behavior Assessment System for Children; Reynolds & Kamphaus, 1992) and a self-report measure (Personality Inventory for Youth; Lachar & Gruber, 1995). Results indicate that, when used in a categorical manner, the PTI differentiated between those patients with and without elevated thought disorder scores on the other measures. Of all Rorschach variables, M- was most related to the other measures, indicating that this variable may be a particularly robust indicator of thought disorder among children and adolescents.     

罗夏综合系统的元分析*

为考察罗夏墨迹测验Exner综合系统常模的客观性和准确性,运用元分析的方法,将来自16个国家的18篇罗夏综合系统正常成人的研究结果,与Exner新版常模进行比较。结果显示,在综合系统的全部113个变量中,有23个变量在联合样本与Exner常模间存在显著差异,包括被试的资源、能力、认知水平和人际关系等方面,且均为Exner常模样本结果更加优秀。结论:新版罗夏综合系统常模具有一定的偏差,存在偏好倾向,使用时应注意避免对被试的低估甚至做出假阳性的诊断。     

Rorschach from quality: a comparison of the Exner and Beck systems

The Beck and Exner systems of assigning Rorschach form quality were compared, There are some inherent differences in the form quality tables of these two Rorschach systematizers. The Beck system is more extensive and seems slightly biased toward-or "poor" form quality in comparison to the Exner system. When the Rorschach records of psychiatric patients were scored for form quality, the Beck system yielded a significantly lower Extended F+% than the Exner system. This effect is probably related to the inherent differences in the respective form quality tables which resulted from the different procedures used in deriving these listings of form quality.     

Geographical Directory of Membership of the Society for Projective Techniques United States and Territories

We examined empirical findings related to the integration of the Rorschach and the MMPI in assessing adolescents. Intercorrelations between 50 Rorschach variables and the 13 MMPI basic scales are reported for a clinical sample of I97 adolescents. Significant correlations only slightly exceeded the number expected by chance. A review of six additional studies of adolescent samples also generally revealed either very modest or nonsignificant relationships between the Rorschach and the MMPI. These findings leave open the possibility that combining data from the two instruments may increase incremental validity, an issue that should be assessed by using multivariate analyses. Guidelines for integrating Rorschach and MMPI data in clinical practices with adolescents are provided.     

Clinical Considerations in the Conjoint Use of the Rorschach and the MMPI

Contemporary clinical and research findings concerning the Rorschach and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) indicate that (a) objectivity and subjectivity are relative and not categorical dimensions of these two instruments; (b) apparent contradictions between Rorschach and MMPI results are generative and not invalidating; (c) within limits, false negative findings are not cause for concern in the clinical application of Rorschach and MMPI variables; and (d) differences between the Rorschach and the MMPI in how they are structured and what they measure demonstrate considerable advantage in using them in complementary fashion to support clinical inferences.     

Clinical considerations in the conjoint use of the Rorschach and the MMPI

Contemporary clinical and research findings concerning the Rorschach and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) indicate that (a) objectivity and subjectivity are relative and not categorical dimensions of these two instruments; (b) apparent contradictions between Rorschach and MMPI results are generative and not invalidating; (c) within limits, false negative findings are not cause for concern in the clinical application of Rorschach and MMPI variables; and (d) differences between the Rorschach and the MMPI in how they are structured and what they measure demonstrate considerable advantage in using them in complementary fashion to support clinical inferences.     

A comparison of selected Rorschach variables of violent female offenders and female non-offenders

A national sample of incarcerated violent female offenders (N = 45) and a sample of female non-offenders (N = 30) were compared on nine selected Rorschach CS (Exner, 2003) variables and three of the aggression variables of Gacono and Meloy (1994). The results indicate that an avoidant and inconsistent coping style was more characteristic of the offenders than the non-offenders. The offenders were characterized by social immaturity and limited capacities to cope with stress as compared with the non-offenders. No significant differences were found between the two groups in handling intense emotions. Although the aggressive scores revealed no discrimination between the groups, significant correlations were found between the aggressive content score and childhood victimization. An inverse relation was found between the aggressive past score and the emotional intensity of the violent offense. The study indicates that the selected RCS variables related to adaptive resources for coping discriminate between violent offenders and non-offenders, but that the variables related to affective features need further examination.     

Rorschach Depression indices with children and adolescents: concurrent validity findings.

Exner (1983, 1986) developed and recently revised (1990b) a Rorschach Depression Index based on scores from variables in the Comprehensive System. This study evaluated both the original and the revised DEPIs for child and adolescent outpatient (n = 67) and inpatient (n = 99) samples in order to assess the diagnostic utility of these indices. There were no significant relationships between the original form and the revised form of the DEPI and clinical elevations on the Depression scale of the Personality Inventory for Children in the outpatient sample or treatment team diagnostic judgments in the inpatient sample. These findings sound a strong cautionary note for using only Rorschach Depression indices to diagnose depression in children and adolescents.     

Multimethod assessment of depression in sexually abused girls

This study measured depression in sexually abused Black girls using the Children's Depression Inventory (Kovacs & A. T. Beck, 1977), the Internalization scale of the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1983), and the Rorschach Depression Index (Exner, 1986). There were no significant correlations between these self-report, behavior observation (by parental report), and projective measures. The abused subjects had high scores on the behavior observation and Rorschach scales. Consistent with past research, negative results were obtained with the self-report instrument. We suggest that the low scores on self-report measures of distress produced by sexually abused children may be the result of guardedness or defensiveness rather than a genuinely low level of dysphoria in this population. There were no significant relations between abuse characteristics and scores on the depression measures. Scores on Rorschach measures of organizational activity (Zf) and available coping resources (EA) were generally positively related to depression within the abuse group and negatively related to depression within the control group.     

Multimethod Assessment of Depression in Sexually Abused Girls

This study measured depression in sexually abused Black girls using the Children's Depression Inventory (Kovacs & A. T. Beck, 1977), the Internalization scale of the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1983), and the Rorschach Depression Index (Exner, 1986). There were no significant correlations between these self-report, behavior observation (by parental report), and projective measures. The abused subjects had high scores on the behavior observation and Rorschach scales. Consistent with past research, negative results were obtained with the self-report instrument. We suggest that the low scores on self-report measures of distress produced by sexually abused children may be the result of guardedness or defensiveness rather than a genuinely low level of dysphoria in this population. There were no significant relations between abuse characteristics and scores on the depression measures. Scores on Rorschach measures of organizational activity (Zf) and available coping resources (EA) were generally positively related to depression within the abuse group and negatively related to depression within the control group.     

Predicting DMS-IV cluster B personality disorder criteria from MMPI-2 and Rorschach data: a test of incremental validity

Despite their frequent conjoint clinical use, the incremental validity of Rorschach (Rorschach, 1921/1942) and MMPI (Hathaway & McKinley, 1943) data has not been adequately established, nor has any study to date explored the incremental validity of these tests for predicting Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed. [DSM-IV]; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) personality disorders (PDs). In a reanalysis of existing data, we used select Rorschach variables and the MMPI PD scales to predict DSM-IV antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic PD criteria in a sample of treatment-seeking outpatients. The correlational findings revealed alimited relation between Rorschach and MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) variables, with only 5 of 30 correlations reaching significance (p <.05). Hierarchical regression analyses showed that both the MMPI and Rorschach data add incrementally in the prediction of DSM-IV borderline and narcissistic PD total criteria scores. The findings were less clear for the incremental value of Rorschach and MMPI-2 data in predicting the total number of DSM-IV histrionic PD criteria, which were best predicted by Rorschach data, and antisocial PD criteria, which were best predicted by MMPI-2 data. In addition to providing evidence of the incremental validity of Rorschach data, these findings also shed light on the psychological characteristics of the DSM-IV Cluster B PDs.     

Association of Rorschach and MMPI psychosis indicators and schizophrenia spectrum diagnoses in a Russian clinical sample

In this study, I investigated the relationships among psychological test variables and schizophrenia spectrum diagnoses in a Russian sample of 180 psychiatric patients. Schizophrenia is understood somewhat differently in Russia than in the West. Analyses compared Rorschach (SCZI, PTI; Exner, 2001) and MMPI (Berezin, Mitroshinkov, & Sokolova, 1994) psychosis indicators (Sc, Sc3, Sc6, and BIZ) and 3 diagnostic systems: (a) Russian traditional, (b) the Russian-modified International Classification of Diseases (9th ed. [ICD-9]; Ministerstvo Zdravokhraneniya SSSR, 1982), and (c) the nonmodified ICD-10 (World Health Organization, 1992; comparable to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [4th ed.], American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Results showed modest support for the SCZI and PTI but not the MMPI indicators. While the field awaits further evidence, psychologists should proceed with caution when using the Rorschach and MMPI to assess for psychosis among Russians.     

Predicting DSM-IV Cluster B Personality Disorder Criteria From MMPI-2 and Rorschach Data: A Test of Incremental Validity

Despite their frequent conjoint clinical use, the incremental validity of Rorschach (Rorschach, 1921/1942) and MMPI (Hathaway & McKinley, 1943) data has not been adequately established, nor has any study to date explored the incremental validity of these tests for predicting Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed. [DSM-IV]; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) personality disorders (PDs). In a reanalysis of existing data, we used select Rorschach variables and the MMPI PD scales to predict DSM-IV antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic PD criteria in a sample of treatment-seeking outpatients. The correlational findings revealed a limited relation between Rorschach and MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) variables, with only 5 of 30 correlations reaching significance (p < .05). Hierarchical regression analyses showed that both the MMPI and Rorschach data add incrementally in the prediction of DSM-IV borderline and narcissistic PD total criteria scores. The findings were less clear for the incremental value of Rorschach and MMPI-2 data in predicting the total number of DSM-IV histrionic PD criteria, which were best predicted by Rorschach data, and antisocial PD criteria, which were best predicted by MMPI-2 data. In addition to providing evidence of the incremental validity of Rorschach data, these findings also shed light on the psychological characteristics of the DSM-IV Cluster B PDs.     

Clinical utility of the Rorschach with African Americans.

In this study we sought to identify Rorschach differences between African Americans and White Americans and to understand these differences within a social and cultural framework. Data from the Exner (1993) Comprehensive System normative sample (N = 700) was used to form a group of 44 African Americans and 44 White Americans matched for age, sex, education, and socioeconomic status. Twenty-three Rorschach variables were chosen a priori and group differences were analyzed. The only clinically significant difference found was that African Americans offered significantly less cooperative movement. This lower frequency of cooperative movement may suggest African Americans do not anticipate cooperative interactions with others as a routine event. This may reflect a shared feeling among African Americans that most members of our society are less likely to be sensitive to or responsive to their needs relative to others. However, the study demonstrates a striking similarity between the groups, supporting the clinical use of the Rorschach with African Americans.     

Cross-Cultural Validation of the Rorschach Developmental Index

The Developmental Index (DI) has recently been introduced as a composite Rorschach measure of psychological development and maturation, which can be used both with the Comprehensive System (Exner, 2003), and with the recently developed Rorschach Performance Assessment System (Meyer, Viglione, Mihura, Erard, & Erdberg, 2011). As the DI is new, and its validity has not yet been investigated with independent non-U.S. samples, we tested the correlation between DI and age using 3 relatively large samples, 2 of which were from outside the United States (total N = 902). Other Rorschach variables presumably associated with maturation, such as complexity and productivity, were also investigated. As expected, the DI significantly correlated with age, with small variations across the 3 samples. Importantly, the correlation between DI and age remained statistically significant also after controlling for productivity (i.e., the number of responses) and complexity.