The Relationship Between Counseling Trainee Perfectionism and the Working Alliance With Supervisor and Client

The relationships between perfectionism, counseling self‐efficacy, and the supervisory and client working alliance were investigated among 143 counseling trainees and 46 supervisor–trainee dyads. Maladaptive perfectionism was negatively correlated with the supervisory alliance and working alliance. Counseling self‐efficacy moderated the relationship between adaptive perfectionism and the supervisory alliance (perspective of the counseling trainee) and maladaptive perfectionism and the supervisory alliance (perspective of the supervisor). The authors conclude that supervisors should consider perfectionism and counseling self‐efficacy as important factors in supervision.     

White Counselor Trainees' Racial Identity and Working Alliance Perceptions

Racial identity has been theorized to significantly affect cross-racial counseling relationships (Helms, 1984, 1995). This study examined the direct impact of White racial identity of 124 counselor trainees on working alliance formation in a same-racial and cross-racial vicarious counseling analogue. Regardless of the race of the client, disintegration and reintegration attitudes negatively affected working alliance ratings, and pseudoindependent and autonomy attitudes positively affected working alliance ratings. Implications for counseling, supervision, training, and research are discussed.     

The Soul of Supervision: Counselor Spirituality

Because spirituality training for counselors and supervisors is vital to counselor development, the authors examined the relationships between purpose in life, the integration of spirituality into supervision, and the supervisory working alliance among a sample of supervisors and trainees. Supervisors reported a greater sense of purpose and spiritual discussion during supervision than trainees. Trainees' personal sense of purpose was positively related to spiritual discussions with a supervisor and to an emphasis on client issues in supervision.     

Gay and bisexual male clients' perceptions of counseling: the role of perceived sexual orientation similarity and counselor universal-diverse orientation

A recurring question in multicultural counseling is whether client-counselor similarity on sociodemographic characteristics benefits counseling. A related issue is how counselor orientation to diversity relates to counseling process and outcome, both as a main effect and in interaction with counselor-client sociodemographic match. This cross-sectional study investigated these questions in relation to gay and bisexual male clients' counseling experiences by examining clients' perceived similarity to their counselor in sexual orientation, as well as counselors' self-reported orientation to diversity (assessed in terms of level of universal-diverse orientation [UDO]). Data were from 83 male-male client-counselor dyads recruited from lesbian/gay/bisexual-affirming counseling practices, where clients identified as gay or bisexual and counselors identified as gay, bisexual, or heterosexual. Counselor UDO was positively and uniquely associated with client ratings of the working alliance, session depth, and session smoothness. Perceived sexual orientation similarity was not directly related to any of the counseling-related criterion variables. Moreover, when counselors reported low levels of UDO, perceived similarity was negatively associated with the client-rated alliance and perceived improvement. Client religious commitment-a control variable in all analyses--was uniquely and negatively associated with client ratings of perceived improvement in counseling.     

Relationship Between the Supervisory Working Alliance and Outcomes: A Meta‐Analysis

This study investigated the relationships between the supervisory working alliance and supervision outcome variables using meta‐analysis. The authors reviewed 27 articles, dissertations, and theses published between 1990 and 2018. The authors used the MIX program to calculate the meta‐analyses. The results indicate that the supervisory working alliance is positively related to supervision outcome variables. Supervisees’ perceived relationship with the supervisor was positively related to the relationship with the client. This shows that the phenomenon of isomorphism is a repeated pattern in the relationships in supervision and counseling. The authors discuss the limitations and implications.     

The Supervisory Working Alliance,Trainee Self-Efficacy,and Satisfaction

Theoretically, when the supervisory working alliance is strong, the trainee and supervisor share a strong emotional bond and agree on the goals and tasks of supervision. Tested was Bordin's (1983) proposition that changes in counselor trainees' perceptions of the supervisory alliance over the course of supervision would predict supervisory outcomes. A national sample of beginning practicum- to intern-level trainees were assessed at the beginning and end of an academic semester. Contrary to predictions, changes in the alliance were not predictive of changes in trainees' self-efficacy. However, improvements in the emotional bond between the trainees and supervisors were associated with greater satisfaction.     

The Effect of Nonverbal Skills Training on Counselor Trainee Nonverbal Sensitivity and Responsiveness and on Session Impact and Working Alliance Ratings

Counselor trainees (N = 18) were randomly assigned to treatment (nonverbal sensitivity) or control (empathy training) conditions. Trainees saw a recruited client before (first 2 weeks) and after (last 2 weeks) a 15-week counseling methods class. Trainees rated their sensitivity to nonverbal behaviors, counseling self-efficacy, and the extent to which they focused on client nonverbal behavior. Clients filled out the Session Evaluation Questionnaire and Working Alliance Inventory at pre- and posttesting. Trained raters viewed videotapes of the counseling sessions and rated the extent that counselors focused on client nonverbal behavior. As hypothesized, trainees in the treatment condition, when compared with those in the control condition, increased their focus on client nonverbal behaviors. In addition, clients of treatment condition counselors showed significant differences in working alliance ratings. Trainees in both conditions increased their rating of nonverbal sensitivity and self-efficacy from pre- to posttesting. Implications are discussed.     

Counseling African American Women: Multiple Identities—Multiple Constraints

Multicultural counseling models have limitations in synthesizing multiple cultural variables such as race, gender, class, and sexual orientation. The author describes 3 multicultural models—Afrocentric, feminist, and “womanist”—and their application to psychotherapy with African American women. Using a case illustration of an African American lesbian client, the author offers strategies for assisting clients to integrate multiple cultural identities.     

Race/ethnicity, color-blind racial attitudes, and multicultural counseling competence: the moderating effects of multicultural counseling training

Increasing trainees' multicultural counseling competence (MCC) has been a hot topic in counseling. Scholars have identified predictors (e.g., race/ethnicity, color-blindness) of MCC, and educators provide multicultural training for trainees. Using a sample of 370 psychology trainees, this study examined whether multicultural training (a) moderated racial/ethnic differences on MCC and (b) changed the relationship between color-blindness and MCC. Results indicated a significant interaction effect of race/ethnicity (i.e., White vs. ethnic minority) and multicultural training on multicultural awareness, but not on multicultural knowledge. Specifically, at lower levels of training, racial/ethnic minority trainees had significantly higher multicultural awareness than their White counterparts; at higher levels of training, no significant difference was found. Described differently, more training significantly enhanced Whites' multicultural awareness, but did not enhance racial/ethnic minority trainees' awareness. Additionally, there was a significant interaction effect of color-blindness and multicultural training on multicultural knowledge, but not on multicultural awareness. The association between color-blindness and multicultural knowledge was stronger at higher levels of multicultural training than at lower levels of training. Alternatively, the effect of training on enhancing knowledge was stronger for those with lower color-blindness than for those with higher color-blindness.     

Career counselor training and supervision: role of the supervisory working alliance

The importance of career counseling within our educational and professional systems is clearly recognized, yet little attention has been directed toward explicating the career counseling supervision process. Research on personal–emotional counseling supervision has stressed the critical importance of the supervisory relationship. The purpose of this study was to better understand the nature and effect of the supervisory working alliance in the supervision of career counselors, using case study methodology. Results point to the importance of explicitly addressing the working alliance early in the work, exploration of affect in supervision, and cognizance of the power differential inherent in a training relationship.     

Client Adherence to Asian Cultural Values,Common Factors in Counseling,and Session Outcome With Asian American Clients at a University Counseling Center

Based on data from 61 Asian American clients at a university counseling center, the study found that client‐perceived match on client‐counselor belief about problem etiology was related to counselor credibility, empathy, and cross‐cultural competence; the client‐counselor working alliance; session depth; and the likelihood of the client recommending the counselor to another client. An interaction effect showed that both strong match on belief about problem etiology and high client expectation for counseling success were associated with strong client‐counselor working alliance.     

Counselor Trainees' Self-Statement Responses to Sexually and Physically Abused Clients,and Client Role Conflict

Because sexual abuse issues present a threat to counselor trainees, the authors predicted that trainees who expected to counsel a sexually abused client would respond with an increase in anxiety and negative self-statements. A total of 63 female trainees were assessed after viewing a videotape of a client reporting sexual abuse, physical abuse, or role conflict. Results indicated that, counter to predictions, the trainees who expected to counsel the sexually abused client increased their positive self-statements. Schwartz's (1986) States-of-Mind model was applied to the self-statement ratios, and, according to the model, trainees were unrealistically optimistic with respect to their counseling.     

Race/Ethnicity and Multicultural Competence Among School Counselors: Multicultural Training,Racial/Ethnic Identity,and Color‐Blind Racial Attitudes

This study tested a model that links race/ethnicity, multicultural training, racial/ethnic identity (REI), color‐blind racial attitudes (CoBRA), and multicultural counseling competence (MCC) among school counselors. The author examined whether multicultural training significantly moderated the association between race/ethnicity and MCC. School counselors’ REI was found to mediate this moderated association. A 3‐way interaction among race/ethnicity, training, and CoBRA revealed that White and racial/ethnic minority school counselors had the lowest MCC scores when they had limited training and higher CoBRA.     

Relationship between orientation toward multicultural competence,multicultural competent behaviors,and working alliance: Examining a multigroup mediation model

In this study, the researchers examined the relationship among an orientation toward multicultural counseling competence, multicultural competent behaviors, and the working alliance from the perspective of 574 client participants across various therapeutic dyads. There was a positive relationship between clients’ perspectives on counselors’ multicultural orientation, counselors’ multicultural competent behavior, and working alliance. Multicultural competent behaviors mediated the relationship between an orientation toward multicultural competence and working alliance. However, the mediated effect was inconsistent across cross and similar racial/ethnic therapeutic dyads. Implications for counselors, limitations of the study, and future directions for research are provided.     

The working alliance and the transference/countertransference relationship: Their manifestation with racial/ethnic and sexual orientation minority clients and therapists

Theoretical propositions are offered about the interrelations of three key concepts in psychotherapy: specifically, the working alliance, on the one hand, and both transference and countertransference, on the other. The role these concepts play, including the interactions between them, is extended to the areas of race/ethnicity and sexual orientation. We examine working alliance, transference, and countertransference considerations for therapy dyads in which at least one of the participants is a member of a racial/ethnic or sexual orientation minority group. Our hope is that this theoretical examination will generate further research and theory development on working alliance, transference, and countertransference where cultural factors such as race/ethnicity and sexual orientation are implicated in the therapeutic relationship.     

The Feminist Supervision Scale: A Rational/Theoretical Approach

This article reports the development and psychometric properties of the Feminist Supervision Scale (FSS), a new scale designed to assess feminist supervision practices in clinical supervision. This 32-item measure was developed using a rational/theoretical approach of test construction and includes four subscales: (a) collaborative relationships, (b) power analysis, (c) diversity and social context, and (d) feminist advocacy and activism. Reliability estimates for the FSS full scale and subscales were acceptable. Structural validity of the FSS was supported by exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Convergent validity was supported by positive correlations between the FSS and self-identification as a feminist supervisor, liberal gender role attitudes, and use of feminist therapy behaviors. Discriminant validity was supported by nonsignificant correlations between the FSS and social desirability and length of time as a supervisor, and by demonstrating that the FSS was related but conceptually distinct from both multicultural competence and perceived supervisory working alliance.     

The working alliance and the transference/countertransference relationship: Their manifestation with racial/ethnic and sexual orientation minority clients and therapists

Theoretical propositions are offered about the interrelations of three key concepts in psychotherapy: specifically, the working alliance, on the one hand, and both transference and countertransference, on the other. The role these concepts play, including the interactions between them, is extended to the areas of race/ethnicity and sexual orientation. We examine working alliance, transference, and countertransference considerations for therapy dyads in which at least one of the participants is a member of a racial/ethnic or sexual orientation minority group. Our hope is that this theoretical examination will generate further research and theory development on working alliance, transference, and countertransference where cultural factors such as race/ethnicity and sexual orientation are implicated in the therapeutic relationship.     

Counseling Supervisors' Assessment of Race,Racial Identity,and Working Alliance in supervisory Dyads

The authors investigated the role of race, racial identity attitudes and working alliance in counseling supervision using data obtained from supervisors in supervisory dyads. Results revealed the strongest working alliance for supervisor‐supervisee pairs with high racial identity development and the weakest working alliance for pairs with low racial identity development. Los autores investigaron el papel que juegan la raza, las actitudes de identidad racial y la alianza de trabajo en la supervisión de consejería, empleando datos obtenidos de supervisores involucrados en diadas de supervisión. Los resultados revelaron que la alianza de trabajo más sólida se da en parejas de supervisor‐supervisado con un desarrollo alto de identidad racial, y la alianza de trabajo más débil en parejas con un desarrollo bajo de identidad racial.     

Successful and Unsuccessful Multicultural Supervisory Behaviors: A Delphi Poll

Using the Delphi method, university counseling center supervisors with significant experience in multicultural supervision generated and ranked elements of successful and unsuccessful multicultural supervision. Twenty‐seven of 35 successful elements and 24 of 33 unsuccessful elements involved cultural considerations. Multicultural supervision was defined as a supervisory situation in which the individuals in the supervisory dyad differed in their ethnicity. Empleando el método Delphi, los supervisores de un centro universitario de consejería con amplia experiencia en supervisión multicultural generaron y clasificaron elementos de supervisión multicultural fructuosos e infructuosos. Veintisiete de los 35 elementos fructuosos y 24 de los 35 infructuosos implicaron consideraciones culturales. La supervisión multicultural se definió como una situación de supervisión en la cual las personas que forman la díada tienen etnicidades distintas.     

An exploration of factors contributing to multicultural counseling self-efficacy in addiction counselors

A non-experimental, correlational survey design was used to explore relationships between counselor recovery status, training, and counselor demographic variables on multicultural counseling self-efficacy in addiction counselors (N = 283) using the Multicultural Counseling Self-Efficacy – Racial Diversity Form. A multiple-indicators and multiple-causes model analysis indicated significant differences based on race, multicultural education, and CACREP program attendance on multicultural counseling self-efficacy. Implications from this study and recommendations for future research are discussed.