Compartmentalization of positive and negative self-knowledge: keeping bad apples out of the bunch.

Three studies examined whether categorical organization of knowledge about the self explains variance in self-esteem and depression beyond that which is accounted for by sheer amount of positive or negative content. Compartmentalization is the tendency to organize positive and negative knowledge about the self into separate, uniformly valenced categories (self-aspects). As long as positive self-aspects are activated, access to negative information should be minimized. Compartmentalization was associated with high self-esteem and low depression scores for individuals whose positive self-aspects were important; when negative self-aspects were important, compartmentalization was correlated with low self-esteem and high depression scores. An analysis of self-aspect labels showed that individuals with compartmentalized organization define negative self-aspects in especially narrow terms. A possible relationship between compartmentalized organization and cognitive complexity is discussed.     

Self-concept integration and differentiation in subclinical individuals with dissociation proneness

Dissociative pathology is characterized by an altered sense of self. Still, it remains unclear (a) whether the altered sense of self is also associated with non-pathological dissociation as well and (b) whether this potential association is an intrinsic connection or a consequence of other related constructs, including childhood trauma. This study addresses this question by examining how self-concept organization may differ among individuals with different levels of dissociation proneness. The structure of self-concept was operationalized by various indexes of self-concept integration and differentiation. Results showed that individuals high in dissociation proneness have lower self-concept clarity and compartmentalize self-aspects with more polarized evaluations. Notably, the association between dissociation proneness and evaluative self-compartmentalization held after controlling for childhood trauma, anxiety, and depression. This characteristic self-concept organization can be an attribute of non-pathological dissociation.     

Looking at Body Image: The Organization of Self-Knowledge About Physical Appearance and Its Relation to Disordered Eating

This study examined the organization of self-knowledge, with special attention to beliefs about physical appearance, in three groups of college-aged women: high body dissatisfaction with symptoms of disordered eating; high body dissatisfaction with no symptoms of disorder; and low body dissatisfaction. In the nondisordered, dissatisfied group, negative beliefs about physical appearance were organized in the self-structure in a way that isolated those beliefs and might minimize their impact and importance. This group also displayed adaptive types of self-concept organization (evaluative integration for those with important negative self-beliefs and compartmentalization for those with important positive beliefs) and effective coping strategies. Features of self-structure that characterize the nondisordered,dissatisfied group may provide a useful model for helping individuals with disordered eating cope with their negative physical appearance beliefs.     

Compartmentalization and integration: the evaluative organization of contextualized selves

This article reviews research on the evaluative organization (compartmentalized or integrative) of contextualized selves. Evaluatively compartmentalized self-structures consist of multiple selves, each of which is either mostly positive or mostly negative. Evaluatively integrative self-structures represent each self with a mixture of positive and negative attributes. These different styles of organizing self-knowledge have been linked to current mood and self-esteem. More recently, studies of evaluative organization have examined self-esteem stability, coping styles (e.g., self-enhancement or resilience), change in self-organization, as well as psychopathology and psychological treatment. Findings suggest that compartmentalized self-structures, typically associated with the highest levels of self-esteem, may be vulnerable to instability. In contrast, the more moderate self-views of individuals with integrative self-structures may offer greater stability, increased resilience, and a means of coping with extreme stress.     

The structure of the self-concept and its relation to psychological adjustment

Research on the relation between the structure of the self-concept and psychological adjustment has produced seemingly inconsistent findings. Some research suggests that greater pluralism in self-concept structure enhances adjustment, whereas other research suggests that greater unity in the structure enhances adjustment. Four studies examined the relations among measures of self-concept structure and their relations with adjustment. The measures of self-concept structure included two that we viewed as reflecting self-concept pluralism (self-complexity and self-concept compartmentalization) and four that we viewed as reflecting self-concept unity (self-concept differentiation, self-concept clarity, self-discrepancies, and the average correlation among participants' self-aspects). The measures of self-concept pluralism were unrelated to one another, were unrelated to the measures of self-concept unity, and were unrelated to the measures of adjustment. The measures of self-concept unity were moderately related to one another and were moderately related to the measures of adjustment.     

Self-knowledge defenses to self-threats

We examined whether people use both shifts in the spontaneous self-concept (self-knowledge content) and in self-concept clarity (self-knowledge structure) to defend against salient self-threats, and identified relevant moderators of this process. In Study 1, women emphasized relational self-aspects in response to mortality salience, compared to men. In Study 2, high self-esteem individuals showed more polarized self-knowledge after mortality salience, while in Study 3 they became faster in their self-categorizations when faced with uncertainty, and more consistent and faster in their self-categorizations when faced with isolation, relative to those with low self-esteem. In the discussion, we focus on how these outcomes can be interpreted as meaning maintenance, clarify the role of self-esteem, and offer directions for future research.     

Individual Differences in Child Kaleidoblock Responses

The relationship between self-esteem and parental identification was investigated. The hypothesis that self-esteem is positively correlated with parental identification was supported for female college students by two out of three self-esteem measures. For male subjects one social self-esteem measure correlated negatively with maternal identification and a self-concept measure correlated positively. No relationship between self-esteem and paternal identification existed for males: hence the hypothesis was refuted. The importance of social self-esteem in the feminine self-concept and its basis in parental identification is emphasized in the discussion.     

A novel approach to assessing achievement goals in the context of the 2 x 2 framework: identifying distinct profiles of individuals with different dominant achievement goals

In two studies, individuals' dominant achievement goals were assessed using a new, simple, and conceptually precise measure based on Elliot and McGregor's (2001) 2 x 2 framework. Next, the four groups were compared in terms of achievement-relevant variables, including need for achievement, perfectionism, perceived competence, interest, and graded performance. As expected, a very high percentage (approximately 85%) of people indicated they had a dominant achievement goal. Furthermore, the results suggest that individuals with different dominant achievement goals have clear, distinct profiles that can be characterized as positively valenced (mastery-approach), both positively and negatively valenced (performance-approach), negatively valenced (performance-avoidance), or neither positively nor negatively valenced (mastery-avoidance).     

Downward comparison, prejudice, and evaluations of others: effects of self-esteem and threat

In two studies, we explored the effects of trait self-esteem and threats to the self-concept on evaluations of others. In Study 1, subjects high, moderate, and low in self-esteem received either success, failure, or no feedback on a test and later evaluated three pairs of targets: in-groups and out-groups based on a minimal intergroup manipulation, those who scored above average and those who scored below average on the test, and themselves and the average college student. Study 2 explored the effects of self-esteem and threat on in-group favoritism in a real-world setting, campus sororities. Together, the results of these studies indicate that individuals high in self-esteem, but not those low in self-esteem, respond to threats to the self-concept by derogating out-groups relative to the in-group when the group boundaries have evaluative implications.     

Group identification moderates emotional responses to perceived prejudice

Two studies tested the prediction that group identification (importance of the group in the self-concept) moderates the impact of perceived discrimination on self-evaluative emotions (depression and self-esteem). In Study 1, women low in gender identification experienced less depressed emotion and higher self-esteem if a negative evaluation was due to sexism than when it was not. The self-evaluative emotions of women high in gender identification were not buffered by attributions to sexism. In Study 2, ethnic identification and depressed emotions were positively related when Latino-Americans read about pervasive prejudice against the ingroup but were negatively related when they read about prejudice against an outgroup. Both studies demonstrated that for highly group identified individuals, prejudice against the ingroup is a threat against the self. Thus, the self-protective strategy of attributing negative feedback to discrimination may be primarily effective for individuals who do not consider the group a central aspect of self.     

On the experience of self-relevant feedback: How self-concept organization influences affective responses and self-evaluations

We evaluated how self-concepts are represented in memory, testing predictions about how self-relevant feedback influences mood and self-evaluation. Specifically, we view the self as comprised of multiple self-aspects (e.g., daughter, sorority sister), each associated with specific attributes (e.g., shy, philanthropy). Study 1 showed that priming a self-aspect increased the accessibility of attributes idiosyncratically associated with the activated self-aspect. In Studies 2 and 3, positive or negative self-relevant feedback was provided to observe how affect and self-evaluations are mediated by self-concept representation. Study 2 demonstrated that changes in mood were accounted for by how feedback impacted evaluations of the currently activated self-aspect. Moreover, evaluations of other self-aspects shifted as they shared more attributes with the self-aspect implicated by feedback. In Study 3, feedback about an attribute also influenced affect, with stronger mood change revealed for attributes associated with a greater proportion of self-aspects. This work demonstrates that affective experiences resulting from self-relevant feedback are not determined by one’s self-concept representation in its entirety, but rather, by the impact of that feedback on activated self-aspects.     

被动性社交网站使用与自尊和自我概念清晰性:有调节的中介模型

为探讨被动性社交网站使用对自尊和自我概念清晰性的影响及其作用机制,在社会比较理论和乐观的保护性作用的视角下,采用问卷法对1208名大学生进行调查。结果表明:(1)被动性社交网站使用对自尊没有直接的预测作用,但能通过上行社会比较的中介作用负向预测自尊;(2)被动性社交网站使用不仅能够直接负向预测自我概念清晰性,还能通过上行社会比较的中介作用对其产生影响;(3)上行社会比较的中介效应受到乐观的调节,相对于乐观水平高的个体,间接效应在乐观水平低的个体中更为显著;(4)此外,在乐观水平高的个体中,上行社会比较对自尊的负向预测作用以及上行社会比较在被动性社交网站使用与自尊之间的中介作用都不显著,但是上行社会比较对自我概念清晰性的负向预测作用以及上行社会比较在被动性使用与自我概念清晰性之间的中介作用仍然显著。研究结果有助于揭示被动性社交网站使用行为对自尊以及自我概念清晰性的影响及其作用机制,对维护与促进个体自我概念健康发展有一定启示意义。     

Perceived discrimination as worldview threat or worldview confirmation: implications for self-esteem

In 3 studies, the authors tested the hypothesis that discrimination targets' worldview moderates the impact of perceived discrimination on self-esteem among devalued groups. In Study 1, perceiving discrimination against the ingroup was negatively associated with self-esteem among Latino Americans who endorsed a meritocracy worldview (e.g., believed that individuals of any group can get ahead in America and that success stems from hard work) but was positively associated with self-esteem among those who rejected this worldview. Study 2 showed that exposure to discrimination against their ingroup (vs. a non-self-relevant group) led to lower self-esteem, greater feelings of personal vulnerability, and ingroup blame among Latino Americans who endorsed a meritocracy worldview but to higher self-esteem and decreased ingroup blame among Latino Americans who rejected it. Study 3 showed that compared with women informed that prejudice against their ingroup is pervasive, women informed that prejudice against their ingroup is rare had higher self-esteem if they endorsed a meritocracy worldview but lower self-esteem if they rejected this worldview. Findings support the idea that perceiving discrimination against one's ingroup threatens the worldview of individuals who believe that status in society is earned but confirms the worldview of individuals who do not.     

Stability of Self-Esteem: Assessment, Correlates, and Excuse Making

We examined stability and level of self-esteem as predictors of excuse making; the extent to which self-ratings of stability are related to a statistical index of self-esteem stability; and the relations between stability and certainty of self-esteem and a variety of other psychological constructs. Regarding excuse making, our findings indicated that for high self-esteem individuals, instability was related to greater excuse making following success, but not following failure. However, for low self-esteem individuals, instability was related to greater excuse making following failure, but not following success. Other findings indicated that self-ratings of stability were only minimally related to a statistical measure of stability based on repeated assessments of self-esteem obtained in naturalistic contexts. Finally, stability of self-esteem was not significantly correlated with certainty of self-esteem. In addition, the pattern of correlations that emerged between certainty and other constructs suggested that uncertainty reflects the phenomenal experience of a tenuous self-view. On the other hand, stability of self-esteem appears to reflect the extent to which one's self-view is malleable, which may not be completely available to conscious awareness. Our discussion focuses on the nature of self-esteem stability and the roles of stability and level of self-esteem in reactions to evaluative events.     

La clarté du concept de soi : validation d’une échelle de mesure en langue française

IntroductionThe self-concept clarity scale (SCC, Campbell et al., 1996) measures the extent to which self-beliefs are perceived as clearly defined, internally consistent and temporally stable.ObjectiveThe study aimed at testing the reliability and validity of a French version of the SCC scale and its relevance to predict the relationship between self-concept and vocational preference.MethodThree studies have been conducted on a total sample of 1114 participants (691 women) aged 15 and 62.ResultsResults revealed that the French version of the SCC had a unidimensional factor structure and high levels of internal consistency and temporal stability (study 1). As predicted, high SCC scores were independently associated with high self-esteem, high conscientiousness, high agreeability, low neuroticism and low social comparison orientation (study 2). Finally, a criterion validity argument was provided by demonstrating that high SCC scores predicted high matching degree between self-concept and occupational preference prototype (study 3).ConclusionThe psychometric properties of the French version of SCC are satisfactory and comparable to those of the English original scale. The use of the SCC scale in academic guidance and career counseling is therefore discussed.     

The effect of overt and covert narcissism on self-esteem and self-efficacy beyond self-esteem

Past literature has suggested a dual nature of trait based narcissism, comprising overt and covert forms. While several studies have examined the two subtypes in relation to self-esteem, very few studies have examined narcissistic subtypes and self-efficacy. 115 Psychology undergraduates filled in self-report measures of overt narcissism, covert narcissism, self-esteem and self-efficacy. Results demonstrated no significant relationship between overt and covert narcissism, suggesting two distinct subtypes. Overt and covert forms of narcissism were found to significantly contribute to self-efficacy beyond self-esteem. Further, overt narcissism positively predicted both self-esteem and self-efficacy beyond self-esteem. Conversely, covert narcissism was found to negatively predict self-esteem and self-efficacy beyond self-esteem. Overt narcissism subscale associations were also computed, with Power being associated with higher self-efficacy but not self-esteem, suggesting Power to be a more adaptive subscale. The Special Person subscale was associated with higher self-esteem but not self-efficacy, suggesting it forms the maladaptive core of overt narcissism. Exhibitionism was not associated with either self-esteem or self-efficacy. Results appear congruent with past literature, and have given an additional insight into the implications of trait based narcissism regarding self-efficacy. Findings appear to suggest trait based overt narcissism is a more adaptive construct to individual self-concept than covert narcissism.     

Exploring the relation between visual mental imagery and affect in the daily life of previously depressed and never depressed individuals

Previously depressed individuals experience disturbances in affect. Affective disturbances may be related to visual mental imagery, given that imagery-based processing of emotional stimuli causes stronger affective responses than verbal processing in experimental laboratory studies. However, the role of imagery-based processing in everyday life is unknown. This study assessed mental imagery in the daily life of previously and never depressed individuals. Higher levels of visual mental imagery was hypothesised to be associated with more affective reactivity to both negatively and positively valenced mental representations.

This study was the first to explore mental imagery in daily life using experience sampling methodology. Previously depressed (n?=?10) and matched never depressed (n?=?11) individuals participated in this study. Momentary affect and imagery-based processing were assessed using the “Imagine your mood” smartphone application. Participants recorded on average 136 momentary reports over a period of 8 weeks.

The expected association between visual mental imagery and affective reactivity was not found. Unexpectedly, in both previously and never depressed individuals, higher levels of imagery-based processing of mental representations in daily life were significantly associated with better momentary mood and more positive affect, regardless of valence.

The causality of effects remains to be examined in future studies.     

Between two selves: comparing global and local predictors of speed of switching between self-aspects

Self-concepts are composed of multiple self-aspects that vary in their momentary accessibility. When a particular self-aspect is active, it guides one’s cognition and behavior in a context-specific fashion. The current research quantified the ease with which people switch from one active self-aspect to another using a novel reaction time approach. Specifically, two studies tested how self-aspect switching speed is influenced by global (i.e., self-complexity) and local (i.e., self-aspect importance) features of the self-concept. The findings revealed that people transition between self-aspects more slowly when switching from a more important self-aspect to a less important one. In other words, important self-aspects are privileged within the working self-concept.