Perinatal depression influences on infant negative affectivity: Timing,severity, and co-morbid anxiety

Accumulating evidence suggests that antenatal depression predicts infants’ negative affectivity, albeit with variable effect sizes. With a prospective longitudinal design, we sought to explain that variability by addressing questions about timing of the depression across pregnancy and the early postpartum, the role of high symptom levels relative to diagnosed depression, comorbidity with anxiety, and the potential mediating role of neuroendocrine functioning. Primiparous women (n = 77) with histories of depression prior to pregnancy were assessed for cortisol levels monthly beginning by mid-pregnancy. Depression symptom levels and diagnostic status were similarly assessed monthly in pregnancy and also until infants reached three months of age, when mothers completed the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised to measure infant negative affectivity. Antenatal depression symptoms and infant negative affectivity were positively associated (r = .39). Controlling for depression symptom levels in other trimesters, only second trimester depression symptoms predicted higher infant negative affectivity (β = .44). With postpartum depression symptom levels in the model, only antenatal depression symptoms predicted infant negative affectivity (β = .45). In the context of depression, neither antenatal anxiety symptoms nor anxiety disorder diagnosis were associated with infant NA scores. The hypothesized role of elevated maternal cortisol as a mechanism for the association between antenatal depression and infant NA was not supported. Our findings contribute to efforts to more precisely identify infants of perinatally depressed mothers who are at greater risk for elevated negative affectivity, suggesting a window of vulnerability in mid pregnancy and the need for further study of potential mechanisms.     

Longitudinal effects of contextual and proximal factors on mother-infant interactions among Brazilian adolescent mothers

Adolescent mothers often come from vulnerable backgrounds which might impact the quality of both maternal and infant behavior. Despite the negative impact of adolescent motherhood for maternal and infant behavior, social support may decrease the risks and promote maternal behavior toward the infant. The aim of this study was to investigate longitudinally the effects of proximal (maternal behavior) and distal (mother’s perceived social support) variables on infant development in a sample of Brazilian adolescent mothers and their infants. Thirty-nine adolescent mothers (M_age = 17.26 years; SD = 1.71) were observed interacting with their infants at 3 and 6 months postpartum and reported on social support. Results revealed that maternal and infant behavior were associated within and across times. Mothers’ perceived social support at 3 months had an indirect effect on infant behavior at 6 months, totally mediated by maternal behavior at 6 months. Our findings revealed the mutual influence between maternal and infant behavior, revealing a proximal process. The results also underscored the importance of the passage of time in the interplay between mother-infant interactions and their developmental context.     

Maternal postpartum depressive symptoms and infant externalizing and internalizing behaviors

Maternal postpartum depression has been shown to be one of the main predictors of externalizing and internalizing behaviors in toddlers and adolescents. Research suggests that presence of such behaviors can be observed as early as infancy. The current study uses longitudinal data from 247 mothers to examine the relationship between postpartum depressive symptoms at 8 weeks and the infant's externalizing and internalizing behaviors at 12 months. In unadjusted linear regression models, there were associations between postpartum depressive symptoms and infant externalizing behaviors (β = 0.082, SE = 0.032, p = 0.012) and internalizing behaviors (β = 0.111, SE = 0.037, p = 0.003). After controlling for potential confounding factors, including maternal age, race, education, home ownership, smoking status in the postpartum period, marital status, parenting stress, and happiness from becoming a parent, the associations between postpartum depressive symptoms and infant externalizing (β = 0.051, SE = 0.034, p = 0.138) and internalizing behaviors (β = 0.077, SE = 0.040, p = 0.057) were reduced and became non-significant. Furthermore, in these models the total amount of variance explained was 17.2% (p < 0.0001) for externalizing behaviors and 10.5% (p < 0.01) for internalizing behaviors; the only significant predictor of externalizing behaviors was maternal age (β = −0.074, SE = 0.030, p = 0.014), and of internalizing behaviors was white non-Hispanic ethnicity (β = −1.33, SE = 0.378, p = 0.0005). A combined effect of the confounding factors seems to explain the finding of no significant independent association between postpartum depressive symptoms and infant externalizing and internalizing behaviors.     

Maternal postnatal psychiatric symptoms and infant temperament affect early mother-infant bonding

Postnatal mother-infant bonding refers to the early emotional bond between mothers and infants. Although some factors, such as maternal mental health, especially postnatal depression, have been considered in relation to mother-infant bonding, few studies have investigated the role of infant temperament traits in early bonding. In this study, the effects of maternal postnatal depressive and anxiety symptoms and infant temperament traits on mother-infant bonding were examined using both mother and father reports of infant temperament. Data for this study came from the first phase of the FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study (n = 102, father reports n = 62). After controlling for maternal symptoms of depression and anxiety, mother-reported infant positive emotionality, measured by infant smiling was related to better mother-infant bonding. In contrast, infant negative emotionality, measured by infant distress to limitations was related to lower quality of bonding. In regards to father-report infant temperament, only infant distress to limitations (i.e., frustration/anger) was associated with lower quality of mother-infant bonding. These findings underline the importance of infant temperament as one factor contributing to early parent-infant relationships, and counseling parents in understanding and caring for infants with different temperament traits.     

Precursors of social emotional functioning among full-term and preterm infants at 12 months: Early infant withdrawal behavior and symptoms of maternal depression

This study forms part of a longitudinal investigation of early infant social withdrawal, maternal symptoms of depression and later child social emotional functioning. The sample consisted of a group of full-term infants (N = 238) and their mothers, and a group of moderately premature infants (N = 64) and their mothers. At 3 months, the infants were observed with the Alarm Distress Baby Scale (ADBB) and the mothers completed the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). At 12 months, the mothers filled out questionnaires about the infants’ social emotional functioning (Infant Toddler Social Emotional Assessment and the Ages and Stages Questionnaire-Social Emotional). At 3 months, as we have previously shown, the premature infants had exhibited more withdrawal behavior and their mothers reported elevated maternal depressive symptoms as compared with the full-born group. At 12 months the mothers of the premature infants reported more child internalizing behavior. These data suggest that infant withdrawal behavior as well as maternal depressive mood may serve as sensitive indices of early risk status. Further, the results suggest that early maternal depressive symptoms are a salient predictor of later child social emotional functioning. However, neither early infant withdrawal behavior, nor gestational age, did significantly predict social emotional outcome at 12 months. It should be noted that the differences in strength of the relations between ADBB and EPDS, respectively, to the outcome at 12 months was modest. An implication of the study is that clinicians should be aware of the complex interplay between early infant withdrawal and signs of maternal postpartum depression in planning ports of entry for early intervention.     

Correlation between maternal and infant cortisol varies by breastfeeding status

ObjectiveThe objective of this study was to examine associations of mother and infant salivary cortisol, measured three times over the course of a day, and assess whether these varied by breastfeeding status.MethodsWe conducted a cross-sectional study of 54 mothers and their infants aged 4–11 months. Mothers collected their own saliva and that of their infants upon awakening, 30 min after waking and at bedtime. Breastfeeding status was reported by mothers and cortisol level was measured in saliva in μg/dl using standard techniques. We used generalized linear models to evaluate relationships between maternal and infant cortisol levels, and assessed whether the relationship differed by breastfeeding status: formula only compared to partial and full breastfeeding, adjusting for infant sex, race, age, maternal education, and family income.ResultsThirty-four infants received formula only and 20 were either partially or fully breastfed. Breastfeeding was associated with higher household income, higher maternal education, and white race. Cortisol levels were higher among breastfed infants at all three time points. After adjustment, maternal cortisol levels were related with infant cortisol at bedtime only (regression estimate 0.06; 95% CI: 0.10, 1.1; p = 0.02). The adjusted association between bedtime maternal and infant cortisol was stronger among breastfeeding dyads than among formula-feeding dyads (regression estimate 1.0; 95% CI: 0.1, 2.0; p = 0.04 vs. 0.6; CI: −0.1, 1.3; p = 0.10). In addition, we assessed the influence of maternal education and household income in our adjusted model; income strengthened the observed association, whereas maternal education did not change the estimate.ConclusionsBreastfeeding mothers and infants had significant correlations for cortisol at bedtime, while formula-feeding dyads did not. These data suggest that several factors may contribute to cortisol synchrony observed in mother/infant dyads, including the transfer of cortisol in human milk, physical interaction such as skin-to-skin contact, and shared environment. In addition, our findings support household income as a possible contributor.     

Mechanisms underlying the self-talk–performance relationship: The effects of motivational self-talk on self-confidence and anxiety

ObjectivesThe present study examined the effects of motivational self-talk on self-confidence, anxiety, and task performance in young athletes.MethodsParticipants were 72 tennis players. The experiment was conducted in five sessions: baseline assessment, three training sessions, and final assessment. After the baseline assessment participants were divided and assigned randomly into experimental and control groups. The two groups followed the same training program with the experimental group practicing the use of self-talk. In the last session, the final assessment took place. A forehand drive test was used to evaluate task performance, and the Competitive Anxiety Inventory-2R was used to assess self-confidence and anxiety.ResultsA two-way mixed model MANOVA revealed that task performance improved for the experimental group (p < .01) and remained stable for the control group; self-confidence increased (p < .01) and cognitive anxiety decreased (p < .05) for the experimental group, whereas no changes were observed for the control group. Correlation analysis revealed that changes in task performance were moderately related to changes in self-confidence (p < .05).ConclusionsThe results of the study showed that self-talk can enhance self-confidence and reduce cognitive anxiety. Furthermore, it is suggested that increases in self-confidence can be regarded as a viable function explaining the facilitating effects of self-talk on performance.     

Parent perfectionism and psychopathology symptoms and child perfectionism

Perfectionism is a multidimensional construct associated with various psychological problems. Studies regarding risk factors for perfectionism are scarce but evidence suggests that parents may be highly involved in their child’s perfectionism. The present study included 160 children aged 8–17 years (67 males, 93 females) and their parents. Relationships between parent and child perfectionism and between parent psychopathology and child perfectionism were examined across 5 age groups (8–9 years, 10–11 years, 12–13 years, 14–15 years, 16–17 years). Self-oriented perfectionism was highest among children aged 16–17 years. Maternal perfectionism and maternal psychopathology predicted child self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism. Maternal anxiety mediated the relationship between maternal other-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism in children aged 8–12 years. Maternal perfectionism and psychopathology may constitute risk factors for child perfectionism. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for theories of perfectionism.     

Maternal prenatal psychological distress and temperament in 1–4 month old infants – A study in a non-western population

In this longitudinal study, conducted in women attending antenatal visits at the obstetrics and gynecology clinic of a general hospital in Bangalore, India, we aimed to assess the relationship between prenatal distress in mothers, and maternal report of infant temperament at four months. 100 mothers with normal full term deliveries completed the General Health Questionnaire-28 item version (GHQ) in the third trimester and postnatally. Salivary cortisol and temperament (using the Early Infancy Temperament Questionnaire – EITQ) were assessed in their infants aged 1–4 months. In this study, maternal prenatal psychological distress was not significantly associated with maternal report of difficult temperament in infants. Infants of mothers who were a negative screen for psychological distress (GHQ < 7), n = 85 had higher scores on the adaptability and approach dimensions of temperament. Infant salivary cortisol was significantly higher in infants with higher intensity scores. These results introduce the possibility of cultural differences in the relationship between prenatal distress in the mother and infant temperament. These could be factors linked to child rearing practices or to the measures employed to study infant temperament. These findings derive from a small sample with few mothers with psychological distress, and need replication in a larger sample.     

Effects of an early intervention on maternal post-traumatic stress symptoms and the quality of mother–infant interaction: The case of preterm birth

Preterm birth may represent a traumatic situation for both parents and a stressful situation for the infant, potentially leading to difficulties in mother–infant relationships. This study aimed to investigate the impact of an early intervention on maternal posttraumatic stress symptoms, and on the quality of mother–infant interactions, in a sample of very preterm infants and their mothers. Half of the very preterm infants involved in the study (n = 26) were randomly assigned to a 3-step early intervention program (at 33 and 42 weeks after conception and at 4 months’ corrected age). Both groups of preterm infants (with and without intervention) were compared to a group of full-term infants. The impact of the intervention on maternal posttraumatic stress symptoms was assessed 42 weeks after conception and when the infants were 4 and 12 months of age. The impact of the intervention on the quality of mother–infant interactions was assessed when the infants were 4 months old. Results showed a lowering of mothers’ posttraumatic stress symptoms between 42 weeks and 12 months in the group of preterm infants who received the intervention. Moreover, an enhancement in maternal sensitivity and infant cooperation during interactions was found at 4 months in the group with intervention. In the case of a preterm birth, an early intervention aimed at enhancing the quality of the mother–infant relationship can help to alleviate maternal post-traumatic stress symptoms and may have a positive impact on the quality of mother–infant interactions.     

Maternal psychological distress after preterm birth: Disruptive or adaptive?

BackgroundMaternal postpartum distress is often construed as a marker of vulnerability to poor parenting. Less is known, however, about the impact of postpartum distress on parenting an infant born prematurely. The present study investigated whether high distress levels, which are particularly prevalent in mothers of preterm born infants, necessarily affect a mother’s quality of parenting.MethodLatent Class Analysis was used to group mothers (N = 197) of term, moderately, and very preterm born infants, based on their levels of distress (depression, anxiety, and PTSD symptoms) at one month postpartum, and their quality of parenting at one and six months postpartum. Parenting quality was assessed on the basis of maternal interactive behaviors (sensitivity, intrusiveness, and withdrawal) using observations, and maternal attachment representations (balanced, disengaged, or distorted) using interviews.ResultsA 5-Class model yielded the best fit to the data. The first Class (47%) of mothers was characterized by low distress levels and high-quality parenting, the second Class (20%) by low distress levels and low-quality parenting, the third Class (22%) by high distress levels and medium-quality parenting, the fourth Class (9%) by high distress levels and high-quality parenting, and finally the fifth Class (2%) by extremely high levels of distress and low-quality parenting.ConclusionsWhile heightened distress levels seem inherent to preterm birth, there appears to be substantial heterogeneity in mothers’ emotional responsivity. This study indicates that relatively high levels of distress after preterm birth do not necessarily place these mothers at increased risk with regard to poor parenting. Conversely, low distress levels do not necessarily indicate good-quality parenting. The results of the present study prompt a reconsideration of the association between postpartum distress and parenting quality, and challenge the notion that high levels of maternal distress always result in low-quality parenting practices.     

Patterns of mother–infant interaction from 3 to 12 months among dyads with substance abuse and psychiatric problems

The aim of this study was to investigate the development of mother–infant interaction patterns from 3 to 12 months among three groups of mother–baby pairs recruited during pregnancy: one group from residential substance abuse treatment (n = 28), a second group from psychiatric outpatient treatment (n = 22), and a third group from well-baby clinics (n = 30). The mother–infant interaction at 3 and 12 months was assessed by the Parent–Child Early Relational Assessment (PCERA), which consists of maternal, child and dyadic subscales (Clark, 2006). Linear mixed effects models were used to analyze group differences and the changes in mother–infant interaction from 3 to 12 months.At 3 months, pairwise comparisons showed that the group with psychiatric problems had significantly more difficulties in the mother–infant interaction than the two other groups. The group with substance abuse problems was not significantly different from the two other groups. At 12 months, the mother–infant pairs in the substance abuse group showed significantly more relational disturbances than the non-clinical pairs, as well as a poorer affective quality of interaction than the dyads in the group with psychiatric problems. Analysis of change from 3 to 12 months showed that difficulties in the interaction increased among the mother–baby pairs in the substance abuse group, while improvements were displayed in the two other groups. These results underline that mother–infant pairs at double risk due to maternal substance abuse and other non-optimal factors, are in need for long-term follow up in order to prevent the development of negative interactional patterns.     

Through babies’ eyes: Practical and theoretical considerations of using wearable technology to measure parent–infant behaviour from the mothers’ and infants’ view points

AimsTo explore the utility of first-person viewpoint cameras at home, for recording mother and infant behaviour, and for reducing problems associated with participant reactivity, which represent a fundamental bias in observational research.MethodsWe compared footage recording the same play interactions from a traditional third-person point of view (3rd PC) and using cameras worn on headbands (first-person cameras [1st PCs]) to record first-person points of view of mother and infant simultaneously. In addition, we left the dyads alone with the 1st PCs for a number of days to record natural mother–child behaviour at home. Fifteen mothers with infants (3–12 months of age) provided a total of 14 h of footage at home alone with the 1st PCs.ResultsCodings of maternal behaviour from footage of the same scenario captured from 1st PCs and 3rd PCs showed high concordance (kappa >0.8). Footage captured by the 1st PCs also showed strong inter-rater reliability (kappa = 0.9). Data from 1st PCs during sessions recorded alone at home captured more ‘negative’ maternal behaviours per min than observations using 1st PCs whilst a researcher was present (mean difference = 0.90 (95% CI 0.5–1.2, p < 0.001 representing 1.5 SDs).Conclusion1st PCs offer a number of practical advantages and can reliably record maternal and infant behaviour. This approach can also record a higher frequency of less socially desirable maternal behaviours. It is unclear whether this difference is due to lack of need of the presence of researcher or the increased duration of recordings. This finding is potentially important for research questions aiming to capture more ecologically valid behaviours and reduce demand characteristics.     

Effects of support surface and optic flow on step-like movements in pre-crawling and crawling infants

Step-like movements were examined in pre-crawling (n = 9) and crawling (n = 9) 6–13 month-old infants in the air and on a surface in response to a static pattern or optic flows that moved toward or away from the infant. Infants completed six 60-s trials. A significant interaction between locomotor status and support condition revealed that pre-crawling infants made more step-like movements in the air than on a rigid surface. In contrast, crawling infants made an equivalent number of step-like movements in the air and on the surface. Optic flow did not influence the number of step-like movements made by infants. The pre-crawling infant finding is consistent with a finding in a previous study in which two month-old infants were shown to step more in the air than on the ground. This finding is discussed relative to the idea that the infant stepping pattern disappears because the legs become too heavy to lift.     

Affective facial expression in sub-clinically depressed and non-depressed mothers during contingent and non-contingent face-to-face interactions with their infants

BackgroundDepression in the postpartum period involves feelings of sadness, anxiety and irritability, and attenuated feelings of pleasure and comfort with the infant. Even mild- to- moderate symptoms of depression seem to have an impact on caregivers affective availability and contingent responsiveness. The aim of the present study was to investigate non-depressed and sub-clinically depressed mothers interest and affective expression during contingent and non-contingent face-to-face interaction with their infant.MethodsThe study utilized a double video (DV) set-up. The mother and the infant were presented with live real-time video sequences, which allowed for mutually responsive interaction between the mother and the infant (Live contingent sequences), or replay sequences where the interaction was set out of phase (Replay non-contingent sequences). The DV set-up consisted of five sequences: Live1-Replay1-Live2-Replay2-Live3. Based on their scores on the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), the mothers were divided into a non-depressed and a sub-clinically depressed group (EPDS score ≥ 6).ResultsA three-way split-plot ANOVA showed that the sub-clinically depressed mothers displayed the same amount of positive and negative facial affect independent of the quality of the interaction with the infants. The non-depressed mothers displayed more positive facial affect during the non-contingent than the contingent interaction sequences, while there was no such effect for negative facial affect.ConclusionsThe results indicate that sub-clinically level depressive symptoms influence the mothers’ affective facial expression during early face-to-face interaction with their infants. One of the clinical implications is to consider even sub-clinical depressive symptoms as a risk factor for mother-infant relationship disturbances.     

Screening Solid Foods Infants 1 (SSFI-1) development of a screening tool to detect problems in the transition from milk to solid food in infants from six to nine months of age

AimTo establish the psychometric properties of a newly developed screening tool Screening Solid Foods Infants 1 (SSFI-1) used by early childhood professionals, to detect problems in the transition from milk to solid food of smooth consistency in infants 6–9 months of age.MethodsThe SSFI-1 score was filled out by the parents of a subgroup with term infants (n = 35); healthy preterm infants (n = 26); infants with comorbidity (n = 17); infants with feeding problems (n = 13). Internal consistency, reproducibility, construct, criterion and related validity was evaluated.ResultsThe preterm subgroup differed significantly in age when starting with fruits/vegetables and period of experience (p < 0.01). The SSFI-1 was sufficiently reliable for the total group and term subgroup (α = 0.78 and 0.76), but not for the preterm and comorbidity/feeding problem subgroup (α = 0.51 and 0.69). Inter-rater reliability was high for the total score (n = 25, ICC r = 0.93), and moderate to good for individual items (weighted kappa range 0.55–0.95). Validity was confirmed by significantly higher scores for the comorbidity/feeding problem subgroups and clinically distinguishable subgroups (p < 0.05) and area under the curve values > 0.78. The initial 10-item screening tool was modified to a seven item screening tool. A SSFI-1 score of 4, +2 SD of the term subgroup, had 76.9% sensitivity and 82.1% specificity, for detecting the presence of a feeding problem.ConclusionThe seven-item screening tool Screening Solid Foods 1 may be used as a screening tool for term infants. Further testing of the SSFI-1 in new infants is needed, to confirm reliability and validity both for term, preterm and (risk for) feeding problem infants.     

Massage therapy improves the development of HIV-exposed infants living in a low socio-economic,peri-urban community of South Africa

The aim of this study was to assess the effect of massage therapy on the growth and development of infants of HIV-infected mothers in a low socio-economic community in Cape Town. It was a prospective, randomised, controlled intervention trial that included massage therapy and control groups of HIV-infected mothers and their normal birth weight infants who were enrolled in the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) programme. Participants were recruited at the 6-week clinic visit and followed up every 2 weeks until their infants were 9 months of age. Mother–infant pairs in the massage therapy and control groups included 73 and 88 at 6 weeks and 55 and 58 at 9 months, respectively. Mothers in the intervention group were trained to massage their infants for 15 min daily. The socioeconomic status, immunity, relationship with the partner and mental pain of mothers; the infants’ dietary intake, anthropometry and development (Griffiths Mental Development Scales); and haematological and iron status of mothers and infants were assessed at baseline and follow-up. Nine infants (5.3%) were HIV-infected on the HIV DNA PCR test at 6 weeks. Despite significantly higher levels of maternal mental pain, infants in the massage therapy compared to control group scored higher in all five of the Griffiths Scales of Mental Development and significantly higher in the mean quotient (p = 0.002) and mean percentile (p = 0.004) for the hearing and speech scale at 9 months. Based on the mean difference in scores, the massage therapy group showed greater improvement for all five scales compared to the control group. The mean difference in scores was significantly greater for the hearing and speech quotient (21.9 vs. 11.2) (p < 0.03) and the general quotient percentile (19.3 vs. 7.7) (p = 0.03) in the massage therapy compared to the control group. These scales remained significant when adjusting for the relationship with the partner and maternal mental pain. Both groups had lower scores in the performance scale at 9 months although this was significantly worse in the control compared to the massage therapy group when adjusting for maternal CD4 count, anaemia, relationship with the partner and mental pain. There were no significant differences in the anthropometric measurements between the two groups. In conclusion, based on the Griffiths Scales, massage therapy improved the overall development and had a significant effect on the hearing and speech and general quotient of HIV-exposed infants in this study.     

Individual differences in non-clinical maternal depression impact infant affect and behavior during the still-face paradigm across the first year

Maternal depression can significantly impact mothers’ sensitivity to their infants’ needs as well as infants’ social and emotional development. The still-face paradigm (SFP) is widely used to assess infants’ understanding of the contingency between their own behavior and that of their caregivers, as well as infants’ ability to self-regulate arousal levels during sudden changes in maternal responsiveness. Infants of clinically depressed mothers display blunted levels of negative affect compared to infants of non-depressed mothers during the still-face (SF) phase. However, little is known about whether individual differences in elevated, non-clinical levels of maternal depression similarly affect mother-infant interactions. The current study examines the longitudinal effects of non-clinical maternal depression on infant and maternal behaviors during the SFP. Infants (N = 63) were assessed at 5 and 9 months and maternal depression was assessed at 5 months using the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). Infants of mothers with elevated levels of depression displayed less negative engagement during the SF phase compared to infants of mothers with lower levels of depression. This effect was present at 5 months, but not at 9 months. Findings demonstrate that non-clinical levels of maternal depressive symptomatology can have a significant impact on infants’ affective regulation during the first half of the first year of life, but this does not necessarily have a long-lasting influence later in infancy. Interventions may want to target mothers with non-clinical depression to promote healthy infant social and emotional development.     

Comparison of fetal and maternal heart rate measures using electrocardiographic and cardiotocographic methods

PurposeTo determine the reliability at term of: (1) two methods of measuring fetal heart rate (HR), electrocardiographic (ECG, the ‘gold standard’) and cardiotocographic (CTG) and (2) two ECG methods of measuring maternal HR variability over relatively brief periods of time (s–min).MethodsDuring 20 min of rest (N = 39) and during 2 min of auditory stimulation (mother's recorded voice, n = 19), fetal HR data were collected using an ECG (Monica AN24) and a Hewlett-Packard Model 1351A CTG. Simultaneously, maternal HR data (n = 37) were collected using the same ECG device (Monica AN24) and a second stand-alone cardiac monitor (Spacelab 514T cardiac monitor with a QRS detector).ResultsDuring 20 min of maternal rest, correlations of individual fetal CTG with ECG measures of HR at each second were moderate to high (r = .57–.97) for 77% of fetuses. Correlations of HR averaged over fetuses and over each of the 20 min were high (r = .93–.97); fetal HR averaged over 20 min varied between devices from 0.0 to 0.8 bpm. During 2 min of maternal voice presentation, correlations of fetal HR over each second were moderate to high (r = .54–.99) for 95% of fetuses and high (all rs = .99) when averaged across fetuses in 30 s or 2 min epochs. Average fetal HR between devices over the 2 min voice varied from 0.0 to 0.6 bpm. Correlations and/or % agreement between the two ECG methods of measuring maternal HR were high. Average maternal HR over 10 min showed 81% of pairs with a difference of ≤1 bpm; correlations for HR variability measures varied from r = .89 to .97.ConclusionsGood reliability was demonstrated between individual spontaneous and auditory induced fetal CTG and ECG with high correlations when HR data were averaged over fetuses or in 30–120 s epochs. High reliability of maternal HR measures was obtained using two ECG devices.     

Predicting toddler temperamental approach-withdrawal: Contributions of early approach tendencies,parenting behavior,and contextual novelty

Research suggests that temperamental approach-withdrawal is subject to parenting influences, but few studies have explored how specific parenting behaviors and contextual novelty contribute to the observed pattern of effects. The present study examined associations between infant temperamental approach, mother behavior while introducing novel objects (12 months) and temperamental approach-withdrawal in toddlerhood (18 months) in a sample of 132 infants (68 males). Maternal positive affect predicted more toddler approach-withdrawal for high-approach infants and maternal stimulation predicted less toddler approach-withdrawal for low-approach infants; however, these patterns varied with intensity of novelty in both parenting and toddler outcome contexts. Thus, maternal behavior may lead to stronger associations between earlier and later measures of approach-withdrawal; however, these effects are tied to contexts of measurement.