Domain effects in lexical development: learning words for foods and toys

We investigated 3-year-olds’ and adults’ use of domain cues in learning words for solid and nonsolid material entities. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants heard a novel neutral noun (e.g., “my X”) for a standard solid or nonsolid entity described as either a toy or a food. They then were asked to extend the word to one of two other entities. Both options matched the standard in solidity; but one differed from it in an object-relevant property (shape) and the other in a substance-relevant property (color, texture, or smell). Both children and adults were more likely to select the same-shaped entity if the standard was (1) solid than if it was nonsolid, and (2) described as a toy than if it was described as a food. Their interpretations of novel words for material entities were thus affected not only by perceptual information (about solidity) but also by conceptual information (about domain). In Experiment 3, the novel noun was presented in a syntactic context that suggested the solid entity should be interpreted as an object (e.g., “an X”) and that the nonsolid entity should be interpreted as a substance (e.g., “some X”). For adults, these changes largely eliminated the effect of the entity’s domain (toy, food) on interpretation. We interpret these findings in terms of the proposal that domain cues, like solidity cues, furnish information about whether an entity’s structure should be thought of as arbitrary or nonarbitrary and, hence, about whether a word should be interpreted as naming an object or a substance construal.     

Visual learning of statistical relations among nonadjacent features: Evidence for structural encoding

Recent results suggest that observers can learn, unsupervised, the co-occurrence of independent shape features in viewed patterns (e.g., Fiser & Aslin, 2001). A critical question with regard to these findings is whether learning is driven by a structural, rule-based encoding of spatial relations between distinct features or by a pictorial, template-like encoding, in which spatial configurations of features are embedded in a “holistic” fashion. In two experiments, we test whether observers can learn combinations of features when the paired features are separated by an intervening spatial “gap”, in which other, unrelated features can appear. This manipulation both increases task difficulty and makes it less likely that the feature combinations are encoded simply as larger unitary features. Observers exhibited learning consistent with earlier studies, suggesting that unsupervised learning of compositional structure is based on the explicit encoding of spatial relations between separable visual features. More generally, these results provide support for compositional structure in visual representation.     

Auditory discrimination learning: Prototype storage and distinctive features detection mechanisms

The relative contributions of prototype storage and distinctive features detection mechanisms hypothesized to be operating in successive discrimination learning were assessed by the extent of negative transfer between auditory discrimination tasks. The results indicated that both mechanisms were involved, but that prototype storage was the dominant process. This outcome is compared with previous research on tactual and visual discrimination learning. Experimental variables are suggested that might control which mechanism predominates.     

Virtual and physical venues as contexts for HIV risk among rural men who have sex with men.

Rural men who have sex with men (MSM) have few identifiable venues in which to congregate and meet potential sex partners. The Internet provides a venue for rural MSM to meet, and this is potentially troubling because studies of urban MSM suggest that HIV risk is higher for men who date online. The goals of this study were to identify venues where rural MSM meet their sexual partners and to examine their association with high-risk sexual practices. Six hundred sixty-three predominantly single, gay, Caucasian MSM completed an online survey of their sexual activities. Results showed that the Internet and bars were the most popular venues for meeting sex partners. Highest rates of risk behaviors were associated with Internet dating and venues in which immediate sexual encounters typically occur, suggesting that prevention in rural areas should target multiple-risk environments.     

Virtual environments for motor rehabilitation: review.

In this paper, the current "state of the art" for virtual reality (VR) applications in the field of motor rehabilitation is reviewed. The paper begins with a brief overview of available equipment options. Next, a discussion of the scientific rationale for use of VR in motor rehabilitation is provided. Finally, the major portion of the paper describes the various VR systems that have been developed for use with patients, and the results of clinical studies reported to date in the literature. Areas covered include stroke rehabilitation (upper and lower extremity training, spatial and perceptual-motor training), acquired brain injury, Parkinson's disease, orthopedic rehabilitation, balance training, wheelchair mobility and functional activities of daily living training, and the newly developing field of telerehabilitation. Four major findings emerge from these studies: (1) people with disabilities appear capable of motor learning within virtual environments; (2) movements learned by people with disabilities in VR transfer to real world equivalent motor tasks in most cases, and in some cases even generalize to other untrained tasks; (3) in the few studies (n = 5) that have compared motor learning in real versus virtual environments, some advantage for VR training has been found in all cases; and (4) no occurrences of cybersickness in impaired populations have been reported to date in experiments where VR has been used to train motor abilities.     

Effects of age on associating virtual and embodied toys.

Technologies such as videos, toys, and video games are used as tools in delivering education to young children. Do children spontaneously transfer between virtual and real-world mediums as they learn? Fifty-six children learned facts about a toy dog presented through varying levels of technology and interactivity (e.g., video game, stuffed animal, picture books). They then met a similar dog character in a new embodiment (e.g., as a stuffed animal if first met the dog as video character). Would children spontaneously generalize the facts they learned about the dog character across mediums (dynamic and static environments)? Results indicate that younger children were more likely to generalize facts across mediums. Specific aspects of the level of technology and interactivity had little effect.     

Group entitativity and group perception: associations between physical features and psychological judgment

Two experiments tested whether the perceived entitativity of groups (i.e., cohesiveness) influences judgments about those groups, in terms of both their observable physical properties and underlying psychological traits. Entitativity was manipulated with groups whose members were similar or dissimilar in skin color. Experiment 1 demonstrated that beliefs about entitativity elicited more accurate judgments of skin color for entitative than nonentitative social groups, although memory for individual members of entitative groups was relatively impoverished. Experiment 2 revealed that entitative groups were viewed as not only physically similar but also psychologically homogeneous and elicited strong negative trait and behavioral judgments. Together, these findings suggest that physical properties (e.g., similarity) can create perceptions of psychological "groupness" that have important consequences for group perception.     

身体活动的双系统理论:一种强化学习的视角

以理性决策为基础的锻炼行为理论被认为是理解身体活动的主导体系, 它提供了与身体活动相关的认知构念作为有价值的信息。基于社会生态模型设计的行为干预措施, 因表现出了更好的效果而备受关注。近期研究表明, 积极的运动认知和当前体育环境都没能很好地促进个人锻炼习惯的养成, 因此有必要探索新的理论体系来阐明个人锻炼习惯的形成机制。解释身体活动的最新体系是双系统理论, 由于其考虑了身体活动的无意识和快乐决定因素, 有望提供一个更广泛的动机视角。一方面, 多个有代表性的身体活动双系统模型, 从简单的自发路径, 到情境线索与锻炼习惯, 再到突出自动情感评价作用的复杂概念模型, 阐明了系统1的构建, 结合锻炼行为理论所关注的系统2, 为模型的构建提供了依据。另一方面, 通过对双系统的竞争、协调和层级控制原则的分析, 为模型的控制提供了建议。经典的强化学习框架解释了双系统模型的构建与控制原则:在模型的构建方面, 无模型与基于模型的强化学习分别表示系统1和系统2。在模型的控制方面, Dyna协作架构与分层强化学习, 为身体活动可能是一种相互协作、分层执行的复杂行动组合提供了合理解释。最后提出强化学习视角下锻炼者-体育环境的互动模式, 试图从一个全新的角度探讨锻炼行为。     

Determinism, predictability and open-ended evolution: lessons from computational emergence

Among many properties distinguishing emergence, such as novelty, irreducibility and unpredictability, computational accounts of emergence in terms of computational incompressibility aim first at making sense of such unpredictability. Those accounts prove to be more objective than usual accounts in terms of levels of mereology, which often face objections of being too epistemic. The present paper defends computational accounts against some objections, and develops what such notions bring to the usual idea of unpredictability. I distinguish the objective unpredictability, compatible with determinism and entailed by emergence, and various possibilities of predictability at emergent levels. This makes sense of practices common in complex systems studies that forge qualitative predictions on the basis of comparisons of simulations with multiple values of parameters. I consider robustness analysis as a way to ensure the ontological character of computational emergence. Finally, I focus on the property of novelty, as it is displayed by biological evolution, and ask whether computer simulations of evolution can produce the same kind of emergence as the open-ended evolution attested in Phanerozoic records.     

Not all is forgotten: Children's associative matrices for features of a word learning episode

Word learning studies traditionally examine the narrow link between words and objects, indifferent to the rich contextual information surrounding objects. This research examined whether children attend to this contextual information and construct an associative matrix of the words, objects, people, and environmental context during word learning. In Experiment 1, preschool-aged children (age: 3;2–5;11 years) were presented with novel words and objects in an animated storybook. Results revealed that children constructed associations beyond words and objects. Specifically, children attended to and had the strongest associations for features of the environmental context but failed to learn word-object associations. Experiment 2 demonstrated that children (age: 3;0–5;8 years) leveraged strong associations for the person and environmental context to support word-object mapping. This work demonstrates that children are especially sensitive to the word learning context and use associative matrices to support word mapping. Indeed, this research suggests associative matrices of the environment may be foundational for children's vocabulary development.     

Client perspectives and open-ended questions: a reply to Dean, et al. (2000)

Utilizing an open-ended question may allow subjects to respond in their own words but does not necessarily avoid the problem of narrowing the focus to a specific predetermined topic.     

Virtual reality pencil and paper tests for neglect: a protocol.

Hemispatial neglect is a common disorder that can occur after a lesion in the right hemisphere. Its main characterization is the difficulty in processing visual stimuli emanating from the space contralateral to the lesion. Pencil and paper tests (such as target cancellation, line bisection, or drawing copy) are used to diagnose neglect. We propose using virtual reality technology and haptic force feedback to enhance pencil and paper tests. Our system can track the patients' eye-gaze and their hand movements. Also, the efficiency of several techniques used to decrease the neglect in different sensory spaces are investigated.     

Detection of emotional faces: salient physical features guide effective visual search

In this study, the authors investigated how salient visual features capture attention and facilitate detection of emotional facial expressions. In a visual search task, a target emotional face (happy, disgusted, fearful, angry, sad, or surprised) was presented in an array of neutral faces. Faster detection of happy and, to a lesser extent, surprised and disgusted faces was found both under upright and inverted display conditions. Inversion slowed down the detection of these faces less than that of others (fearful, angry, and sad). Accordingly, the detection advantage involves processing of featural rather than configural information. The facial features responsible for the detection advantage are located in the mouth rather than the eye region. Computationally modeled visual saliency predicted both attentional orienting and detection. Saliency was greatest for the faces (happy) and regions (mouth) that were fixated earlier and detected faster, and there was close correspondence between the onset of the modeled saliency peak and the time at which observers initially fixated the faces. The authors conclude that visual saliency of specific facial features--especially the smiling mouth--is responsible for facilitated initial orienting, which thus shortens detection. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2008 APA, all rights reserved).     

Self-regulated learning in physical education: Examining the effects of emulative and self-control practice

Objective

This study examined the effectiveness of sequential practice from the emulation to the self-control level of the social cognitive model of self-regulated learning development. The model proposes that students who practice with social feedback at the emulation level first and then set goals and self-record their performance at the self-control level master sport skills effectively.

Design

The design included one between-subjects factor, the group with five levels and one within-subjects factor, time (pre-test, post-test).

Method

One hundred fifth and sixth grade students (40 boys and 60 girls) were assigned to four experimental and one control group and practiced the basketball dribble.

Results

The results showed that students of all experimental groups improved their dribbling performance from pre- to post-test. Students who received social feedback and observed repeated demonstrations at the emulation level and then set process or performance goals and self-recorded their performance at the self-control level improved their dribbling performance more than students who missed emulative practice. No improvement was found for control group students.

Conclusions

These results supported the effectiveness of the social cognitive model of self-regulated learning development, showing that this model can be used as an instructional approach for teaching sport skills in physical education.     

Qualitative differences among gender-stereotyped toys: Implications for cognitive and social development in girls and boys

Although it has been suggested that the early play experiences of girls and boys may contribute to gender differences in cognitive and social development, empirical support for this hypothesis is limited. This paper reports the development of a system of toy classification and may permit a more programmatic investigation of this problem. One hundred adult subjects rated 50 children's toys on 12 “functional” dimensions. Results showed that these toys could be reliably described according to multidimensional similarities and that toys considered appropriate for girls differed in many ways from those considered appropriate for boys. Thus this system may allow us to test more systematically the hypothetical relationship between sex-typed toy play and the development of differential cognitive and/or social skills in girls and boys.     

Associations between sensor-based physical activity behaviour features and health-related parameters

ObjectivesWearable actimetry devices are used increasingly in cohort and cross-sectional studies to assess physical activity (PA) behaviour objectively. Thus far, the medical relevance of distinct PA groups, as identified by using new methods of sensor data analysis, remains unclear. The objective of this research paper is to evaluate whether such PA groups differ in commonly accepted health risk parameters.MethodsPA sensor data and corresponding outcome data of the NHANES 2005–06 study were obtained. Data pre-processing included elimination of potential outliers, data splitting and the computation of PA parameters, including a novel regularity measure. PA groups were identified using the x-Means clustering algorithm, and groups were evaluated for differences in CRP, BMI and HDL.ResultsData sets of 7334 NHANES participants were analysed, and four distinct PA groups were identified. Statistically significant group differences were found for CRP and BMI (p < 0.001), but not for HDL (p = 0.67).ConclusionsPA groups derived from objective accelerometer mass data differ in exemplary health-related outcome parameters. The novel PA regularity measure is of particular interest and may become part of future PA assessments, especially when regarding low-intensity, short-lived PA events. Further research in pattern recognition methods and analytic algorithms for PA data from current multi-sensing devices is necessary.