Sex-Role Orientation and the Willingness to Confront Existential Issues

The relationship between sex-role orientation and willingness to confront existential issues was examined. Eighty-eight undergraduates completed the Bem Sex Role Inventoy and Avoidance of Existential Confrontation (AEC) scale. A Sex × Masculinity × Femininity analysis of variance of AEC scores showed that masculine men and feminine women reported the least willingness to confront existential issues. Androgynous men were the most receptive to facing existential issues. These findings are discussed in terms of the defensiveness often evidenced by sex-typed persons and the importance of responding to the existential concerns of young adults struggling to establish a sex-role identity.     

BEHAVIORAL TREATMENT OF DEVIANT SEX-ROLE BEHAVIORS IN A MALE CHILD1

This study demonstrated reinforcement control over pronounced feminine behaviors in a male child who had been psychologically evaluated as manifesting “childhood cross-gender identity”. The clinical history of the subject paralleled the retrospective reports of adult transsexuals, including (a) cross-gender clothing preferences, (b) actual or imaginal use of cosmetic articles, (c) feminine behavior mannerisms, (d) aversion to masculine activities, coupled with preference for girl playmates and feminine activities, (e) preference for female role, (f) feminine voice inflection and predominantly feminine content in speech, and (g) verbal statements about the desire or preference to be a girl. The subject was treated sequentially in the clinic and home environments by his mother, trained to be his therapist. The mother was taught to reinforce masculine behaviors and to extinguish feminine behaviors, by using social reinforcement in the clinic and a token reinforcement procedure in the home. During this treatment, his feminine behaviors sharply decreased and masculine behavior increased. The treatment effects were found to be largely response-specific and stimulus-specific; consequently, it was necessary to strengthen more than one masculine behavior and weaken several feminine behaviors, in both clinic and home settings. A multiple-baseline intrasubject design was used to ensure both replication and identification of relevant treatment variables. Follow-up data three years after the treatment began suggests that the boy's sex-typed behaviors have become normalized. This study suggests a preliminary step toward correcting pathological sex-role development in boys, which may provide a basis for the primary prevention of adult transsexualism or similar adult sex-role deviation.     

Personality Characteristics of Androgynous and Sex-Typed Females

Personality characteristics of androgynous and sex-typed females identified by the gem Sex-Role Inventory were studied using the California Psychological Inventory. The results indicated that sex-typed females showed personality characteristics associated with traditional sex-role stereotypes while androgynous females showed both masculine nd feminine characteristics. There was an indication that androgynous and masculine females were better adjusted socially than feminine or undifferentiated females.     

Personality characteristics of androgynous and sex-typed females

Personality characteristics of androgynous and sex-typed females identified by the gem Sex-Role Inventory were studied using the California Psychological Inventory. The results indicated that sex-typed females showed personality characteristics associated with traditional sex-role stereotypes while androgynous females showed both masculine nd feminine characteristics. There was an indication that androgynous and masculine females were better adjusted socially than feminine or undifferentiated females.     

The relationship of gender and sex-role orientation to vocational undecidedness

This investigation examined the effects of gender and sex-role identity on vocational indecision and its multiple subtypes. Data were collected on 191 undergraduate students, and the results of the analyses revealed that sex-role orientation was strongly related to subjects' levels of vocational undecidedness. Nontraditionally sex-typed subjects scored at significantly higher levels on all indecision indices than did traditionally sex-typed subjects. However, no gender-related differences were found among the various indecision indices. Implications for future research are discussed.     

The Factor Structure of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory

Seventy-seven female and 86 male psychologist practitioners filled out the Bem Sex Rote Inventory to describe either a healthy adult male, healthy adult female, or healthy adult, sex unspecified. Analyzing the data according to Bem's classification of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny produced a significant Scale X Condition interaction with male and female practitioners ascribing significantly more masculine than feminine traits to healthy adult men, yet displaying no comparable differences when rating healthy adult women. Analyzing the data according to Spence's classification of masculine, feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated produced a Group X Condition interaction with practitioners ascribing significantly more masculine traits to healthy adult men and significantly more feminine traits to healthy adult women. Reanalyses omitting "masculine" and "feminine" from Bem's fist of sex-typed traits produced nonsignificant results. The relationship of this to recent criticisms of the construct validity of the BSRI and to the validity of earlier results of therapist sex-role bias was discussed.     

Assessment of sex-role stereotyping among male and female psychologist practitioners

Seventy-seven female and 86 male psychologist practitioners filled out the Bem Sex Rote Inventory to describe either a healthy adult male, healthy adult female, or healthy adult, sex unspecified. Analyzing the data according to Bem's classification of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny produced a significant Scale X Condition interaction with male and female practitioners ascribing significantly more masculine than feminine traits to healthy adult men, yet displaying no comparable differences when rating healthy adult women. Analyzing the data according to Spence's classification of masculine, feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated produced a Group X Condition interaction with practitioners ascribing significantly more masculine traits to healthy adult men and significantly more feminine traits to healthy adult women. Reanalyses omitting "masculine" and "feminine" from Bem's fist of sex-typed traits produced nonsignificant results. The relationship of this to recent criticisms of the construct validity of the BSRI and to the validity of earlier results of therapist sex-role bias was discussed.     

Androgyny and sex-typing: Differences in beliefs regarding gender polarity in ratings of ideal men and women

To test Bem's (1979) hypothesis that androgynous and sex-typed individuals are differentiated by the presence or absence of beliefs in “gender polarity,” 200 students rated themselves on the short Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). Of these 200, 20 androgynous women, 20 androgynous men, 20 feminine sex-typed women, and 20 masculine sex-typed men were randomly selected and asked to rate either the ideal woman or the ideal man on the short BSRI. As predicted, androgynous women did not rate the ideal man and woman differently, but, contrary to prediction, neither did feminine-typed women. As predicted, masculine-typed men rated the ideal man and woman differently, but, contrary to prediction, so did androgynous men. Thus, sex rather than sex-role distinguished subjects' beliefs in gender polarity. This finding may reflect women's desires for, and men's fears of, abandoning traditional modes of sex differentiation. The large initial subject pool was necessary because an extremely high percentage of subjects were classified as feminine sex-typed. An apparent feminine bias in the short BSRI is discussed.     

Emotional expressivity and sex-role perceptions of repressors and sensitizers

Two studies were conducted examining the contributions of repression-sensitization (R-S) status, sex-role perceptions, and sex of the target of expressivity to assess the expression of emotional discomfort by males, in Experiment I verbal and nonverbal measures of emotional expressiveness were obtained for male repressors and sensitizers exposed to neutral or moderately negative arousal situations with sex of the target of the expressiveness controlled. In Experiment 2 repressors were found to be sex-typed masculine and male sensitizers sex-reversed in their sex-role perceptions. The usefulness of R-S status and sex, role perceptions to predicting emotional expressivity by males is discussed.     

Relationship between sex-role attitudes and personality traits and the revised sex-role behavior scale

Two hundred college men and women completed self-report measures of sex-role traits (Personal Attributes Questionnaire), attitudes (Attitudes Toward Women Scale), and behavior (Sex-Role Behavior Scale). Intercorrelations among the three measures were examined to test two competing theoretical perspectives which dominate sex-role research today. The social learning point-of-view of Janet Spence and her colleagues asserts a general independence of sex-role personality traits, attitudes, and behaviors. The cognitive-developmental theory of Sandra Bem asserts that sex-role phenomena are fairly closely interrelated, at least for sex-typed individuals whose gender schemas cause them to adhere closely to traditional sex-role norms in their self-concepts and behavior. Findings of moderate relationships between masculine, feminine, and sex-specific personality traits, and the corresponding interest/behavior scales of the Sex-Role Behavior Scale, and between sex-role attitudes and behaviors lend partial support to both perspectives.     

Influence of sex and gender roles on high school status systems

Past research has indicated significant sex differences in determinants of male and female high school students' status as measured by how subjects would like to have been remembered from their high school years. In order to determine if remembrance preference is sex or gender role related, 671 subjects were administered the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) and a questionnaire asking if they most wanted to be remembered from high school as a brilliant student, leader in activities, athletic star or most popular. Using both the median split and t-ratio procedures in scoring the BSRI, 206 subjects were selected because they were sex-typed (masculine males, feminine females), cross sex-typed (masculine females, feminine males), or androgynous (scoring high on both masculine and feminine traits). To find a model of best fit, the data were subjected to a log-linear analysis. The variables included were sex, gender role, and remembrance preference. Rather than sex being the influential factor, the model of best fit was a gender role by remembrance preference interaction. If subjects were masculine, they were more likely to choose athletic star than were feminine or androgynous subjects. Most popular and leader in activities were both more likely to be chosen by feminine and androgynous subjects. All groups chose brilliant student more often than any other category. It was concluded that some previously designated sex differences may instead be differences in gender role. Further research should address the distinction between the two.     

Shame, guilt, and identity in men and women: the role of identity orientation and processing style in moral affects

In the current study, 200 women and 106 men (M age = 19.6 years old) completed measures of shame, guilt, identity-orientation, and identity-processing styles. Women reported greater shame and guilt than men. Zero-order and partial correlates indicated that for both women and men shame was related positively to a social identity (one’s public image as presented through roles and relationships) and a diffuse processing style (both self-relevant information and self-exploration about one’s identity is avoided), while guilt was related to personal identity (conceptualizing oneself as unique) and an information-oriented style (self-exploration of personal issues occurs). Integration of identity orientation and cognitive processing styles in relation to shame and guilt was discussed.     

Androgyny in a male-dominated field: The relationship of sex-typed traits to performance and satisfaction in engineering

The relationship of sex-typed traits to performance and to satisfaction in engineering was investigated using a sample of men and women engineers with five years or less of professional work experience. Both men and women engineers high in instrumentality (androgynous and masculine) reported greater levels of supervisory and technical responsibility, salary, involvement in professional activities, and satisfaction than those low in instrumentality (feminine and undifferentiated). Expressiveness was not significantly related to any of the measures of performance or satisfaction. Although a few sex differences were found, the magnitude of the effects were generally smaller than those for instrumentality. Engineers' self-ratings of various abilities were also positively related to instrumentality. Only a small percentage of variance in the performance and satisfaction measures was accounted for by sex and sex-typed traits.     

Sex-role attitudes,identities, and political ideology

This study examines whether sex-role identities and attitudes toward sex roles are part of a more general liberal—conservative dimension of political ideology. Survey data are analyzed from two independent random samples of Indiana University students in 1974–1975. Sex-role attitudes are measured by two scales, dealing with evaluations of the traditional sex-based division of labor and levels of sex-stereotyping of various tasks. The Bem Sex Role Inventory is used to measure respondents' sex-role identities. Those who score more liberal or flexible on each measure of sex-role attitudes are also very likely to hold liberal political attitudes. These correlations are strong and consistent enough to indicate that sex-role attitudes fit into a more general liberal—conservative ideology, at least among college students. Correlations between sex-role identities and political attitudes are much weaker. Among men, liberal political attitudes are associated with a more flexible (androgynous) sex-role identity; among women, in contrast, liberal political attitudes are related more consistently to a more traditionally masculine sex-role identity.We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of the Indiana University Women's Studies Program, Michael A. Maggiotto, Christine Williams, and especially Barbara Allen for her insightful comments and capable data analysis.     

The behavioral treatment of a “transsexual” preadolescent boy

Behavioral treatment procedures were developed to suppress feminine sex-typed behaviors and to increase masculine sex-typed behaviors in an 8-year-old boy with “childhood cross-gender identity.” The boy's clinical history paralleled the retrospective reports of adult transsexuals, including (1) feminine voice inflection and predominantly feminine content in speech, (2) verbal self-reference as “sissy” and “fag” and statements about his preference to be a girl, (3) feminine hand and arm gestures and “swishy” gait, (4) an aversion to masculine play activities, (5) a strong preference for girl playmates and taking a feminine role in play and role-playing, and (6) improvised cross-dressing. With a multiple-baseline intrasubject design across stimulus environments and across behaviors, the subject was treated sequentially in the clinic, at home, and in the school. The boy's mother was trained to administer a token economy program in the home, and the school teacher was taught to apply a response-cost procedure in the classroom. The initial treatment effects were found to be largely response specific and stimulus specific, necessitating treatment for a number of behaviors in the three major environments. Followup data 12 months after treatment termination suggest that the boy's sex-typed behaviors have become essentially normalized. This treatment holds promise for correcting pathological gender identity development in boys and for relieving the associated emotional adjustment problems.     

Sex-role identity,sex of other,and affective relationship as determinants of interpersonal conflict-management styles

Previous research in sex-role identity has explored behavioral differences in a variety of contexts. Only recently, however, have differences in interaction style been investigated. The study reported here was designed to assess behavioral differences in one important type of interaction: interpersonal conflict. Of 143 college students responding to the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI), a final sample of 57 subjects provided questionnaire data on five conflict-management modes in hypothetical conflicts with others who varied on factors of sex and affective relationship with respondent. Results of the MANOVA analysis suggested that feminine persons disapprove of competition more than persons of masculine and androgynous sex-role identification. The results further suggested that masculine persons may differentiate less between liked and disliked others in their competitive behavior than do feminine and androgynous persons. Finally, results suggested that conflicts with liked, as opposed to disliked, others are managed with less competition and more accommodation, collaboration, and compromise for all sex-role identity groups.     

Strong but not silent: A reexamination of expressivity in the relationships of men

Expressivity and sex-role identification were examined in a study of men in either same-sex or other-sex close relationships. It was hypothesized that androgynous men would be higher in expressivity than masculine men and that both would be higher than undifferentiated men, a hypothesis supported by the findings. Expressivity appeared to be associated with sex roles to a greater extent in same-sex relationships than in other-sex relationships, where additional factors were presumably associated with expressivity. Surprisingly, the feminine sex role was not associated with expressivity, although the masculine sex role was positively related to expressivity. Further analyses revealed that strength aspects of masculinity were associated with greater expressivity.