Psychometric properties of the Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) in a meditating and a non-meditating sample

The factor structure, internal consistency, construct validity, and predictive validity of the Dutch version of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ-NL) were studied in a sample of meditators (n = 288) and nonmeditators (n = 451). A five-factor structure was demonstrated in both samples, and the FFMQ-NL and its subscales were shown to have good internal consistencies. Meditators scored higher on all facets of the FFMQ-NL than the participants in the nonmeditating sample. For both samples, expected negative correlations between most mindfulness facets (all except for the Observing facet) and the constructs of alexithymia, thought suppression, rumination, worry, and dissociation were found. The Observing facet of the FFMQ-NL showed an unexpected positive correlation with thought suppression in the nonmeditating sample. Furthermore, as expected, mindfulness facets were negatively related to psychological symptoms, and all mindfulness facets except for Observing and Describing significantly predicted psychological symptoms. Overall, the Dutch FFMQ demonstrated favorable psychometric properties, commensurate with its (original) English language version.     

Mapping Mindfulness Facets Onto Dimensions of Anxiety and Depression

Mindfulness has been associated with anxiety and depression, but the ways in which specific facets of mindfulness relate to symptoms of anxiety and depression remains unclear. The purpose of the current study was to investigate associations between specific facets of mindfulness (e.g., observing, describing, nonjudging, acting with awareness, and nonreactivity) and dimensions of anxiety and depression symptoms (e.g., anxious arousal, general distress-anxiety, general distress-depression, and anhedonic depression) while controlling for shared variance among variables. Participants were 187 treatment-seeking adults. Mindfulness was measured using the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire and symptoms of depression and anxiety were measured using the Mood and Anxiety Symptom Questionnaire. Bivariate correlations showed that all facets of mindfulness were significantly related to all dimensions of anxiety and depression, with two exceptions: describing was unrelated to general distress-anxiety, and observing was unrelated to all symptom clusters. Path analysis was used to simultaneously examine associations between mindfulness facets and depression and anxiety symptoms. Significant and marginally significant pathways were retained to construct a more parsimonious model and model fit indices were examined. The parsimonious model indicated that nonreactivity was significantly inversely associated with general distress anxiety symptoms. Describing was significantly inversely associated with anxious arousal, while observing was significantly positively associated with it. Nonjudging and nonreactivity were significantly inversely related to general distress-depression and anhedonic depression symptomatology. Acting with awareness was not significantly associated with any dimensions of anxiety or depression. Findings support associations between specific facets of mindfulness and dimensions of anxiety and depression and highlight the potential utility of targeting these specific aspects of mindfulness in interventions for anxiety and mood disorders.     

Factor Analysis of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire in a Heterogeneous Clinical Sample

This study assesses the facet structure and psychometric properties of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) with a heterogeneous clinical sample of individuals with mood and anxiety disorders. Various factor models of the FFMQ were submitted to confirmatory factor analyses (CFA). A four factor hierarchical solution, consisting of an overall mindfulness construct subsuming at least four factors, was adopted. Both internal consistency and convergent and discriminant validity were assessed. Along with demonstrating good internal consistency, the facets of the FFMQ were appropriately associated with other psychological constructs. Many mindfulness facets exhibited inverse relationships with emotion dysregulation, emotional avoidance, and psychological distress. The observe facet appeared to assume a role antagonistic to overall mindfulness within a clinical sample, as it exhibited a positive relationship with anxious arousal and no relationship with two other mindfulness facets. Findings support the notion of mindfulness as a multifaceted construct, the structure of which alters in the context of psychopathology.     

The Five Factor Mindfulness Questionnaire in Norway

The aim of this study was to adapt the Five Factor Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) for use in Norway. Three studies involving three different samples of university students (mean age 22 years, total N = 792) were conducted. Confirmatory factor analyses showed that a five factor structure provided an acceptable fit to the data. All five factors loaded significantly on the overall mindfulness factor. As expected, correlations between the FFMQ total scores and subscales were positive and significant, ranging from 0.45 to 0.65. Correlations between FFMQ total/subscales and Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) were significant and negative (since low scores on the MAAS indicate high mindfulness), ranging from r = ?0.17 to ?0.69. The Norwegian FFMQ total score was inversely correlated with all indicators of psychological health: neuroticism (r = ?0.61), ruminative tendencies (r = ?0.41), self‐related negative thinking (r = ?0.40), emotion regulation difficulties (r = ?0.66) and depression (r = ?0.46 to r = ?0.65). In contrast to the other FFMQ subscales, the FFMQ Observe subscale did not have a positive relation to psychological health in our mostly non‐meditating sample. However, being able to non‐judgmentally observe one's inner life and environment is a part of the mindfulness construct that might emerge more clearly with more mindfulness training. We conclude that the Norwegian FFMQ has acceptable psychometric properties and can be recommended for use in Norway, especially in studies seeking to differentiate between different aspects of mindfulness and how these may change over time.     

Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire—Reliability and Factor Structure: A Swedish Version

Two studies were conducted to assess the Swedish version of the Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), which was originally created by Baer et al. (2006). The aim of Study 1 was to examine the psychometric properties of the FFMQ using data from 495 individuals. Quantitative and qualitative analyses resulted in a reduction of the scale by 10 items. Psychometric properties, including internal consistency of the revised instrument, were examined. The Swedish FFMQ provides results comparable to those obtained by Baer. Cronbach's alphas were high for all the facets. The Swedish FFMQ appears to be a potentially useful tool in measuring mindfulness among Swedish participants. The aim of Study 2 was to test the suggested hierarchical five-factor solution and construct validity, using a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Similar to findings for the English version of the FFMQ, the CFA showed that the Observing facet was not a significant part of an overall self-reported mindfulness structure in a Swedish population with little meditation experience.     

The "what" and the "how" of dispositional mindfulness: using interactions among subscales of the five-facet mindfulness questionnaire to understand its relation to substance use

Although self-report measures of dispositional mindfulness have good psychometric properties, a few studies have shown unexpected positive correlations between substance use and mindfulness scales measuring observation of present-moment experience. The current study tested the hypothesis that the relationship between present-moment observation and substance use is moderated by the tendency to be nonjudgmental and nonreactive toward the observed stimuli. Two hundred and ninety-six undergraduates completed the five-facet mindfulness questionnaire (FFMQ), a calendar measuring periods of substance use, and a measure of the five-factor model of personality. Controlling for FFMQ and personality subscales, significant interactions between the observing and nonreactivity subscales indicated that the observing subscale was negatively associated with substance use at higher levels of nonreactivity but positively associated with periods of substance use at lower levels of nonreactivity. Results support the use of statistical interactions among FFMQ subscales to test for the presence of interactive effects of different aspects of mindfulness.     

Testing the Effectiveness of Brief Behavioral Activation Treatment for Depression—Revised: Changes in Depression,Anxiety, Dysfunctional Attitudes,and Mindfulness

We tested the effectiveness of Brief Behavioral Activation Treatment for Depression-Revised (BATD-R), and its impact on secondary outcomes: anxiety, dysfunctional attitudes, and mindfulness. It was expected that individuals who completed BATD-R would exhibit decreased depression, anxiety, and dysfunctional attitudes, as well as increased mindfulness. A sample of adults with depression (n?=?42) was recruited to complete the 10-week treatment. A healthy control group (n?=?38) was included for comparison. Outcomes (depression, anxiety, dysfunctional attitudes, and mindfulness) were assessed at pre-treatment, post-treatment or 10 weeks for the healthy control group, and three-month follow-up. At pre-treatment, the clinical group reported greater depression, anxiety, and dysfunctional attitudes, and less mindfulness than the healthy control group. At post-treatment, the clinical group reported decreased depressive symptoms, trait anxiety, and dysfunctional attitudes, and increased mindfulness, compared to pre-treatment. The control group did not exhibit changes across the 10 weeks. Clinical and healthy control group post-treatment scores did not differ. At three-month follow-up, the clinical group reported a slight increase in depressive symptoms from post-treatment, but still maintained lower depressive symptoms than pre-treatment. The clinical group maintained treatment gains in dysfunctional attitudes, and mindfulness. Results support the effectiveness of BATD-R and suggest BATD-R may influence dysfunctional attitudes and mindfulness.

     

Model stability of the 15-item Geriatric Depression Scale across cognitive impairment and severe depression

The 15-item Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) is used in a wide variety of clinical and research settings. The study's purpose was to further establish the validity of the 15-item GDS by exploring the underlying factor structure in a healthy, nondemented sample of older adults and then analyzing whether this factor structure remained stable across a sample of demented individuals and a sample of individuals with a history of depression 6 months after discharge from an inpatient psychiatric setting. A 2-factor model fit the data best in the exploratory analyses. The 2 factors, Life Satisfaction and General Depressive Affect, found in the nondemented sample (r = .39) remained stable across cognitive impairment (r = .12) but merged into a 1-factor model in the psychiatric sample (r = .93). The results indicate that nondepressed older adults with poor life satisfaction may be identified as depressed on screening instruments such as the 15-item GDS.     

Dimensionality of the hospital anxiety and depression scale (HADS) in cardiac patients: comparison of Mokken scale analysis and factor analysis

The hospital anxiety and depression scale (HADS) measures anxiety and depressive symptoms and is widely used in clinical and nonclinical populations. However, there is some debate about the number of dimensions represented by the HADS. In a sample of 534 Dutch cardiac patients, this study examined (a) the dimensionality of the HADS using Mokken scale analysis and factor analysis and (b) the scale properties of the HADS. Mokken scale analysis and factor analysis suggested that three dimensions adequately capture the structure of the HADS. Of the three corresponding scales, two scales of five items each were found to be structurally sound and reliable. These scales covered the two key attributes of anxiety and (anhedonic) depression. The findings suggest that the HADS may be reduced to a 10-item questionnaire comprising two 5-item scales measuring anxiety and depressive symptoms.     

Psychometric assessment of the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) among Chinese adolescents

The Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) has the longest empirical track record as a valid measure of trait mindfulness. Most of what is understood about trait mindfulness comes from administering the MAAS to relatively homogenous samples of Caucasian adults. This study rigorously evaluates the psychometric properties of the MAAS among Chinese adolescents attending high school in Chengdu, China. Classrooms from 24 schools were randomly selected to participate in the study. Three waves of longitudinal data (N = 5,287 students) were analyzed. MAAS construct, nomological, and incremental validity were evaluated as well as its measurement invariance across gender using latent factor analyses. Participants' mean age was 16.2 years (SD = 0.7), and 51% were male. The 15-item MAAS had adequate fit to the one-dimensional factor structure at Wave 1, and this factor structure was replicated at Wave 2. A 6-item short scale of the MAAS fit well to the data at Wave 3. The MAAS maintained reliability (Cronbach's α = .89-.93; test-restest r = .35-.52), convergent/discriminant validity, and explained additional variance in mental health measures beyond other psychosocial constructs. Both the 15- and 6-item MAAS scales displayed at least partial factorial invariance across gender. The findings suggest that the MAAS is a sound measure of trait mindfulness among Chinese adolescents. To reduce respondent burden, the MAAS 6-item short-scale provides an option to measure trait mindfulness.     

Anxiety, Depression, and Tension/Stress in Children

This study explored whether the structure of negative affect in children is similar to that previously found in adults (S. H. Lovibond & P. F. Lovibond, 1995). A sample of 577 7–14-year-old children completed a 76-item questionnaire designed to measure anxiety, depression, and tension/stress, comprising both exploratory items and the full item content of established measures of childhood anxiety and depression. Exploratory factor analyses indicated that several symptoms that were previously found to be nonspecific in adults also failed to differentiate between anxiety and depression in youth. Further, the core symptoms of depression were shown to be similar to those previously identified in adults. However, the hypothetical constructs of anxiety and tension/stress could not be differentiated. It is possible that these two distinct affective syndromes have not yet emerged in childhood. Alternatively, future refinements of the questionnaire's item content may lead to a more precise assessment of anxiety and tension/stress in children.     

The Experiences in Close Relationships Scale-Revised Child version: Reliability and structural validity of the Polish adaptation

The Experiences in Close Relationships Scale-Revised Child version (ECR-RC) is a self-report questionnaire measuring attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance. The aim of this study was to validate a Polish version of the ECR-RC, assess its reliability and factorial structure based on the results obtained from a community sample of 277 children aged between 10 and 13. The results of confirmatory factor analyses revealed a two-factor structure of the Polish ECR-RC that showed an adequate internal structure and consistency. Moreover, a model fit of an abbreviated, 12-item version and a three-factor structure were tested. Overall, the results of this study offer a valid and reliable tool for assessing attachment anxiety and avoidance in Polish-speaking children.     

A test of the tripartite model of depression and anxiety in older adult psychiatric outpatients

This study examined the tripartite model of depression and anxiety in 131 psychiatric outpatients, ages 55-87. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that a 3-factor model provided an adequate fit to the observed data, that the 3-factor model was empirically superior to 1- or 2-factor models, and that the 3-factor structure obtained in the current sample of older adult outpatients converged with that obtained on a separate, younger 'sample. Negative affect was significantly related to depression and anxiety symptoms and syndromes, and positive affect was more highly related to depression than anxiety symptoms and syndromes. Ways for taking into account possible age-associated differences in emotion in older adults and thus improving the conceptual model of anxiety and depression are briefly noted.     

Social connectedness,mindfulness, and coping as protective factors during the COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has had an unprecedented psychological impact, revealing immense emotional disturbances among the general population. This study examined the extent to which social connectedness, dispositional mindfulness, and coping moderate symptoms of anxiety and depression in 1242 adults under the same government-issued COVID-19 stay-at-home mandate. Participants completed measures of anxiety, depression, dispositional mindfulness, social connectedness, and coping, and regression analyses were used to examine associations and interaction effects. Results indicated that social connectedness and dispositional mindfulness were associated with reduced symptoms. For individuals living with a partner, decreased mindfulness and avoidant coping were associated with anxious symptoms. In households with children, overutilization of approach coping served to increase symptoms of depression. Results indicate the importance of considering social connectedness, mindfulness, and coping in counseling to enhance factors serving to protect clients during a public health crisis. Implications for professional counselors and areas of future research are discussed.     

The frequency of actions and thoughts scale: development and psychometric validation of a measure of adaptive behaviours and cognitions

This paper describes the development and preliminary psychometric evaluation of an instrument that measures the frequency of adaptive behaviours and cognitions related to therapeutic change during cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), for symptoms of anxiety and depression. Two studies were conducted. In study one, 661 participants completed an online survey with 28 items targeting adaptive behaviours and cognitions. Exploratory factor analysis performed on part of the sample (n = 451) revealed that a four-factor solution ‘characterised’ the data. This led to the development of a 12-item instrument, the Frequency of Actions and Thoughts Scale (FATS). Confirmatory factor analysis was used to confirm the factor structure of the FATS using the remaining sample (n = 210), which revealed an acceptable model fit. In study two, 125 participants with clinically significant symptoms of anxiety, depression, or both were recruited to an Internet-delivered CBT (iCBT) treatment course. Participants completed the FATS and other measures throughout treatment, after treatment, and at three-month follow-up. Correlations and residual change scores of the FATS and its subscales with measures of anxiety, depression, behavioural activation, and CBT-related skills usage supported the construct validity of the FATS. A significant increase in FATS scores over treatment was also observed. The findings provide preliminary support for the psychometric properties of the FATS, which appears to have utility in research investigating mechanisms of change in CBT.     

The tripartite model for assessing symptoms of anxiety and depression: psychometrics of the Dutch version of the mood and anxiety symptoms questionnaire

AIM: The tripartite model conceptualizes symptoms of depression and anxiety in three groups: low positive affect and anhedonia, which is specific to depression, somatic arousal, which is unique to anxiety, and nonspecific general distress. The Mood and Anxiety Symptoms Questionnaire (MASQ) was developed to measure these symptom domains. This study reports on the psychometric properties of the Dutch translation of the MASQ. METHOD: The questionnaire was completed by a population-based sample and by patients with anxiety and/or mood disorders. Scores of these respondent groups were compared to assess the discriminant validity of the MASQ and evaluate the appropriateness of the tripartite model. RESULTS: The psychometric properties of the translated MASQ were highly satisfactory. In accordance with the model, we found the MASQ to comprise three main scales, which discriminate well between subgroups of patients with mood and anxiety disorders. DISCUSSION: Overall, like the English version the Dutch translation of the instrument appears to be a reliable and valid measure of symptoms of depression and anxiety, conceptualized as comprising three groups of symptoms. The Dutch MASQ is better able to distinguish unique aspects of mood and anxiety disorders than other self-report instruments.     

Assessment of Anxiety in Older Adults: Translation and Psychometric Evaluation of the German Version of the Geriatric Anxiety Scale (GAS)

Anxiety occurs frequently among older adults, and can have deleterious impacts on the quality of daily life. Due to the dearth of well-validated elder-specific anxiety screening instruments available in the German language, this study aimed to translate the Geriatric Anxiety Scale (GAS), a reliable and valid 30-item self-report screening instrument for assessing anxiety based on DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria (Segal et al. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24(7), 709–714, 2010a), into German, and to validate the new measure. The German version of the GAS was developed through a translation and back translation process, with careful attention paid to culturally-sensitive expressions of anxiety in the German older adult population. The final version of the German GAS was tested in a sample of 242 community-dwelling older adults (M_age?=?72.0 years, SD?=?6.9 years; 59 % women) who completed either an online (26 %) or a paper-pencil (74 %) version of the questionnaire. The findings confirmed the successful translation of the GAS into German and provided psychometric support for the new measure. The validation of the factor structure based on confirmatory factor analyses was in support of a unidimensional structure of the GAS-G. Correlational analyses with inventories measuring anxiety related and non-anxiety related personality traits additionally confirmed the convergent and discriminant validity of the GAS for use as an assessment measure for anxiety among German older adults.     

An Examination of Concurrent and Incremental Validity of Four Mindfulness Scales

General consensus among psychologists supports the beneficial effects of mindfulness in the treatment of a wide range of clinical conditions such as personality, mood, and anxiety disorders. Several scales used to assess this psychological construct, mainly rooted in Eastern traditions, are currently available to researchers and clinicians. However, the conceptualization and measurement of mindfulness has been considerably diverse. The present study examines the concurrent and incremental validity of four scales: the Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale (PHLMS), the Toronto Mindfulness Scale (TMS), the Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), and the Langer Mindfulness Scale (LMS). Two independent samples of 176 adults and 397 students, respectively, were recruited. With few exceptions, results were consistent across the two samples and indicated that measures based on an Eastern conceptualization of mindfulness (TMS, PHLMS, and FFMQ) show a different pattern of association with the chosen outcomes compared to the LMS, which is based on a Western conceptualization. Overall, the PHLMS showed the strongest predictive effects and the LMS the weakest in terms of both number of predicted criteria and average effect size. Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

Child-Adolescent Suicidal Potential Index (CASPI): a screen for risk for early onset suicidal behavior

This study's purpose was to develop a reliable and valid self-report questionnaire, the Child-Adolescent Suicidal Potential Index (CASPI), to screen for risk for suicidal behavior in children and adolescents. Four hundred twenty-five child and adolescent psychiatric patients and nonpatients completed the CASPI and other research instruments to rate suicidal and assaultive behavior and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and hopelessness. The 30-item CASPI involves 3 factors (anxious-impulsive depression, suicidal ideation or acts, family distress) that contributed to a unidimensional 2nd-order factor accounting for 59% of the total variance. Internal consistency (alpha) for the total score was .90, and test-retest reliability (ICC) for the total score was .76. Total score distinguished between children and adolescents with different severity of psychopathology and different levels of suicidal and assaultive behavior. Each of the 3 factors had different contributions to discriminating between levels of suicidal status. CASPI total score of 11 distinguished suicidal ideation or acts from nonsuicidal behavior, with sensitivity 70% and specificity 65%. CASPI total score positively correlated with symptom severity of depression, anxiety, and hopelessness.     

An Uncontrolled Clinical Trial of Guided Respiration Mindfulness Therapy (GRMT) in the Treatment of Depression and Anxiety

Guided respiration mindfulness therapy (GRMT) is a manualized intervention that synthesizes a sustained focus on self-regulation of respiration, mindfulness, and relaxation. In our previous publication (in Lalande et al. J Contemp Psychother 46(2):107–116, 2016) we reported an evaluation of a manual-based GRMT therapist training program for the treatment of depression and anxiety. Here we report the outcomes of the manualized treatment program for depression and anxiety with clients. Forty-two participants with a primary diagnosis of depression or anxiety disorder participated in an uncontrolled clinical trial evaluating treatment response using standardised outcome measures with data collected on a session-by-session basis. For the majority of participants, treatment led to statistically and clinically significant reduction in symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress, along with reduced anxiety sensitivity and increases in overall wellbeing. Results suggested GRMT shows promise as an effective brief treatment option that does not rely on cognitive or behavioural techniques.