小学生领导力萌芽与发展的实证研究

摘 要 本研究以四年级学生为研究对象,通过话语分析,探究了八个无领导小组八次讨论过程中领导力的萌芽状况及其影响因素。结果发现,小学生可自发出现领导力行为,但只有两个小组会涌现出明显的领导者,并表现为独立领导和协同领导两种不同模式。对学生和教师行为的综合分析显示,学生领导力的形成与教师示范、反馈及同伴互动存在密切关系,这对学生领导力的培养具有重要的启示意义。     

EFFECTS OF LEADERSHIP STYLE AND PROBLEM STRUCTURE ON WORK GROUP PROCESS AND OUTCOMES IN AN ELECTRONIC MEETING SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT

Organizations are increasingly utilizing electronic meeting systems to enhance work group process and outcomes. Because leadership is a key group attribute, it is important to examine how behaviors of leaders influence work groups using electronic meeting systems. Results of a laboratory experiment indicated that (a) Participants made more supportive remarks under a consultative form of participative leadership than directive leadership; (b) Participants proposed more solutions and made fewer critical remarks for a fairly structured problem than for a moderately structured problem; (c) Participative leadership was more conducive to proposal of solutions for a moderately structured problem, while directive leadership was more conducive for a fairly structured problem; and (d) Frequency of solution proposals in turn affected group productivity and satisfaction. Implications for personnel practitioners and research on leadership in electronic meeting environments are presented.     

Productive Failure in Learning Math

When learning a new math concept, should learners be first taught the concept and its associated procedures and then solve problems, or solve problems first even if it leads to failure and then be taught the concept and the procedures? Two randomized‐controlled studies found that both methods lead to high levels of procedural knowledge. However, students who engaged in problem solving before being taught demonstrated significantly greater conceptual understanding and ability to transfer to novel problems than those who were taught first. The second study further showed that when given an opportunity to learn from the failed problem‐solving attempts of their peers, students outperformed those who were taught first, but not those who engaged in problem solving first. Process findings showed that the number of student‐generated solutions significantly predicted learning outcomes. These results challenge the conventional practice of direct instruction to teach new math concepts and procedures, and propose the possibility of learning from one's own failed problem‐solving attempts or those of others before receiving instruction as alternatives for better math learning.     

Selecting analogous problems: Similarity versus inclusiveness

Students were asked to select one of two analogous problems in order to solve algebra word problems. In Experiment 1, one problem was less inclusive and the other was more inclusive than a test problem. The students judged the complexity and similarity of problems, selected analogous problems, and used the solutions to solve test problems. They performed significantly better on the test problems when given the more inclusive solutions, but used perceived similarity rather than inclusiveness to select analogous problems. The same pattern of results occurred in Experiment 2, in which isomorphic problems replaced the more inclusive problems. The results show that students are deficient in selecting good analogies, both from the same category (Experiment 1) and from a different category (Experiment 2). Students who saw the analogous solutions (Experiment 3) or were majoring in mathematics (Experiment 4) were more likely to select an isomorphic problem over a less inclusive problem, but were not more likely to select a more inclusive over a less inclusive problem.     

An effective metacognitive strategy: learning by doing and explaining with a computer‐based Cognitive Tutor

Recent studies have shown that self‐explanation is an effective metacognitive strategy, but how can it be leveraged to improve students' learning in actual classrooms? How do instructional treatments that emphasizes self‐explanation affect students' learning, as compared to other instructional treatments? We investigated whether self‐explanation can be scaffolded effectively in a classroom environment using a Cognitive Tutor, which is intelligent instructional software that supports guided learning by doing. In two classroom experiments, we found that students who explained their steps during problem‐solving practice with a Cognitive Tutor learned with greater understanding compared to students who did not explain steps. The explainers better explained their solutions steps and were more successful on transfer problems. We interpret these results as follows: By engaging in explanation, students acquired better‐integrated visual and verbal declarative knowledge and acquired less shallow procedural knowledge. The research demonstrates that the benefits of self‐explanation can be achieved in a relatively simple computer‐based approach that scales well for classroom use.     

General and Domain-Specific Self-Esteem Among Regular Education and Special Education Students

We examined the global and domain-specific self-esteem of students who are emotionally disturbed, students who are learning disabled, and students who are in regular education classrooms. Students who were emotionally disturbed or learning disabled had lower global self-esteem than did students in regular education classes. The specific domains in which students in special education felt that they were less competent than students in regular education included social skills, leadership skills, and academics. However, the 2 groups of students in special education did not differ from one another. No differences emerged between the groups on a measure of self-esteem that is less subject to social desirability concerns. Implications of this research for education are discussed.     

Creative Problem Solving in Small Groups: The Effects of Creativity Training on Idea Generation,Solution Creativity,and Leadership Effectiveness

This investigation evaluated the degree to which creativity training, idea generation instruction, and creative process impacted idea production, creativeness of solutions, and leadership effectiveness. Three sets of hypotheses were tested with a 114 groups of adults. First, groups whose members had some (i.e., one CPS course) or advanced training (i.e., graduate-level study in creativity or creativity professionals) were significantly more effective at idea generation than groups without training. Furthermore, leaders with some and advanced training were perceived to be significantly more effective than those with no creativity training. With respect to creativeness of solutions, the advanced training groups outperformed all others. The second set of hypotheses focused on the effectiveness of idea generation instruction (i.e., instructions without brainstorming, brainstorming, and brainstorming with criticism). Analysis revealed no significant difference for idea generation instruction relative to idea production or creativeness of solutions. The final set of hypotheses examined the use of a simple process structure for groups without prior creativity training (i.e., distinct phases for idea generation and solution development). Analysis revealed that those meetings that followed a simple process structure out performed groups that did not follow a process for both idea generation and creativeness of solutions. Further results are presented and implications discussed.     

The mainstream is not electable: when vision triumphs over representativeness in leader emergence and effectiveness

Theories of visionary leadership propose that groups bestow leadership on exceptional group members. In contrast, social identity perspectives claim that leadership arises, in part, from a person's ability to be seen as representative of the group. Integrating these perspectives, the authors propose that effective leaders often share group members' perspectives concerning the present, yet offer a unique and compelling vision for the group's future. In addition, although intergroup contexts may increase the value of representativeness, the authors predict that vision dominates representativeness in single-group situations characterized by high levels of collective stress (e.g., a natural disaster). Five studies demonstrated that visionary leaders (those who offer novel solutions to their group's predicament) attract more followers, promote group identification and intrinsic motivation, mobilize collective action, and effectively regulate group members' emotions and reactions to crises compared to representative leaders. The authors discuss when, why, and how vision triumphs over representativeness in leader emergence and effectiveness.     

Peer counseling in an urban high school setting

Peer counseling, an educational strategy in which students counsel and help facilitate the growth and development of other students, was implemented in an urban high school. Auniors and seniors, selected for their high leadership and character traits, participated in the 32-session training program. The training program focused on five areas: team building and the development of group cohesion; development of understanding and awareness of self and others; development of more effective communication skills; development of effective feedback procedures; and development of leadership, problem solving, and intervention skills. Lectures, task exercises, simulated problem situations, role-playing group discussions, expressive and creative activities, and audio-visual aids were employed for the dissemination of information. Peer counselors were assigned between five and 10 students for counseling for approximately nine weeks. In general, the counseless gained an ability to relate more effectively with both peers and adults and in problem solving and communication skills.     

Recognizing creative leadership: Can creative idea expression negatively relate to perceptions of leadership potential?

Drawing on and extending prototype theories of creativity and leadership, we theorize that the expression of creative ideas may diminish judgments of leadership potential unless the charismatic leadership prototype is activated in the minds of social perceivers. Study 1 shows that creative idea expression is negatively related to perceptions of leadership potential in a sample of employees working in jobs that required creative problem solving. Study 2 shows that participants randomly instructed to express creative solutions during an interaction are viewed as having lower leadership potential. A third scenario study replicated this finding showing that participants attributed less leadership potential to targets expressing creative ideas, except when the “charismatic” leader prototype was activated. In sum, we show that the negative association between expressing creative ideas and leadership potential is robust and underscores an important but previously unidentified bias against selecting effective leaders.     

Retention of problem solutions: the re-solution effect

Four experiments compared the re-solution performance of prior solvers with that of prior nonsolvers given the correct solutions. Experiments 1 and 2 challenged Weisberg and Alba's (1981) contention that solving a problem and being shown the solution yield equivalent problem knowledge. In both experiments, students who initially solved problems showed near-perfect recall of the solutions after a 1-week delay, far superior to recall by students who had been shown the correct answers. In Experiment 3, solves showed poor solution retention when the connection between the problem and the solution was not meaningful. Experiment 4 showed that with meaningful problems, solvers and those merely provided with solutions have qualitatively different problem representations. The findings can be explained in terms of differential understanding of problems and their solutions.     

Emergent leadership and female sex role identity.

The effects of female sex role identity on self- and rater evaluations of emergent leadership behavior were compared in two studies. We used the same consensus-seeking procedure in both studies to collect the data; only the biological sex composition of the groups in the second study was changed. Study 1 examined 15 mixed-sex groups of 39 female and 21 male students; Study 2 contained 96 female students in 22 same-sex groups. Sex role orientation was measured with the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI: Bem, 1974). Androgynous and feminine-oriented self-ratings of leadership were significantly higher than peer ratings and were also significantly higher than the undifferentiated self-ratings. The self-ratings of masculine-oriented women agreed most closely with peer ratings. Contrary to research and theory, peer evaluation of leadership behavior by sex role orientation did not differ.     

类比比较样例对物理综合题学习迁移效果的影响

研究通过三个实验,比较了普通样例和类比比较样例在学习物理综合题中的效果,并在此基础上,进一步分析两种不同类型的类比比较样例对物理综合题学习的迁移效果以及“提示”这一样例设计方法的促进作用。结果发现:(1)通过类比比较样例学习物理综合题的效果优于普通样例;(2)相比于单综概念类比比较样例,综合概念类比比较样例能更好地提高物理综合题学习的近迁移成绩,但未提高其远迁移成绩;(3)提示能明显促进类比比较样例在物理综合题学习中的作用,但不同提示类型的影响无显著差异。该结果表明:类比比较样例是学习物理综合题的有效样例形式,而其中综合概念类比比较样例效果最佳;开放式提示和支架式提示均能较好地促进类比比较样例的学习。     

Intergroup and Intragroup Aspects of Leadership in Social Dilemmas: A Relational Model of Cooperation

Two experiments investigated how leadership shapes individual contributions in small groups facing public goods dilemmas. We predicted that the influence of leaders would be determined by their ability to fulfill both instrumental needs (solve the free-rider problem) and relational needs (contribute to the identity) of group members. The relative importance of these two needs was expected to vary with the salience of group membership (social vs personal identity). This hypothesis was supported in two experiments. Experiment 1 revealed that leaders showing group commitment and fairness toward members were more effective at raising contributions when social identity was salient. Furthermore, Experiment 2 showed that highly committed leaders were more influential when social identity was salient, whereas leaders with intrinsic leadership skills were more influential when personal identity was salient. This suggests that the effectiveness of leader solutions to social dilemmas depends upon the fit between leader characteristics and member expectations.     

Facilitative Style,Individual Innovation,and Emergent Leadership in Problem Solving Groups

ABSTRACT This study responded to an issue raised in a recent review of leadership research regarding the lack of available data concerning leader characteristics and management of creative work groups. Specifically, the effects of facilitative leadership style and individual creative contributions on emergent leadership were assessed in an initially leaderless creative problem solving situation. Participants were 34 university security officers who were divided into four groups to play Island Commission. At the end of the session, participants rated each other on facilitative style, innovative contribution, and leadership behavior. Both independent variables made a significant contribution to perceptions of leadership (R = .82, p < .0001). Results are discussed in terms of leadership theory, and implications for personnel selection, training, and development of creative problem solving teams.     

Emergent Leadership and Female Sex Role Identity

The effects of female sex role identity on self- and rater evaluations of emergent leadership behavior were compared in two studies. We used the same consensus-seeking procedure in both studies to collect the data; only the biological sex composition of the groups in the second study was changed. Study 1 examined 15 mixed-sex groups of 39 female and 21 male students; Study 2 contained 96 female students in 22 same-sex groups. Sex role orientation was measured with the Bern Sex Role Inventory (BSRI: Bem, 1974). Androgynous and feminine-oriented self-ratings of leadership were significantly higher than peer ratings and were also significantly higher than the undifferentiated self-ratings. The self-ratings of masculine-oriented women agreed most closely with peer ratings. Contrary to research and theory, peer evaluation of leadership behavior by sex role orientation did not differ.     

Improving reading and writing learning in underprivileged pluri‐ethnic settings

Background: Many studies carried out in first language contexts tend to demonstrate the positive effects of activity programmes aimed at (1) developing metaphonological abilities and (2) developing language skills through active story listening on learning to read and to spell by first‐grade students. Aims: This study seeks to extend previous findings by (a) including children, the majority of whom have French as a second language, who attend plurilingual schools and have not been included in previous studies, and (b) providing training based on three essential principles shared by the two kinds of programmes: integrating activities into realistic literacy practice contexts; encouraging active student participation through tasks which very often require problem solving; and tackling, one after the other, different kinds of operations or strategies. Sample: Three groups of students were created out a pool of 202 children enrolled in nine first‐grade classes in three underprivileged pluri‐ethnic schools. The control group was composed of 46 students who received typical, first‐grade methods for teaching reading and spelling. Experimental group 1 (DMPA), 91 students, received a training programme aimed at metaphonological abilities development. Experimental group 2 (DLS), 65 students, received a training intended to develop language skills through active story listening and production. Method: The students from the three groups were evaluated at the beginning (metaphonological task I, pre‐reading task) and at the end (metaphonological task II, word recognition task, text comprehension task, word spelling task) of their first year in elementary school. Results: The programme for the development of metaphonological abilities enabled DMPA group students to obtain significantly higher scores than the control group on metaphonological task II and word recognition task. The DMPA group children also did significantly better than the control and the DLS groups on the word spelling task. However, the DLS group, who benefited from language skills development activities, also progressed in that they obtained significantly better results than the control group in the word recognition task. Moreover, at the end of grade one, there was no difference in the scores obtained by the groups on a comprehension questionnaire administered after the reading of the narrative text. Conclusion: The word reading skills of first‐grade children in underprivileged pluriethnic settings can be improved through activities aimed at metaphonological abilities development or language skills development by means of active story listening and production. On the other hand, in order to develop word spelling abilities, the development of metaphonological abilities was more effective. Lastly, further research should seek to improve understanding of the absence of effects of either learning programme on narrative text comprehension.     

Problem solving deteriorates following mood challenge in formerly depressed patients with a history of suicidal ideation

The authors divided 34 participants who had a history of depression into 2 groups, those having previous suicidal ideation or behavior (n=19) and those having no such symptoms (n=15), then compared the 2 groups with a group of participants who had no history of depression (n=22). Assessment of interpersonal problem-solving performance using the Means-Ends Problem-Solving (MEPS) task before and after a mood-induction procedure showed that only those formerly depressed people with a history of suicidal ideation shifted in MEPS performance, producing significantly less effective problem solutions following mood challenge, consistent with a differential activation account of vulnerability for recurrence of suicidal ideation and behavior. The deterioration in effectiveness following mood challenge was moderated by lack of specificity in autobiographical memory.     

Personality and the Perception of Transformational Leadership: The Impact of Extraversion,Neuroticism, Personal Need for Structure,and Occupational Self‐Efficacy1

This experimental study examined the influence of followers' personal characteristics on their perception of leadership. Participants were 175 students who self‐rated several personality scales (extraversion, neuroticism, personal need for structure, and occupational self‐efficacy) at Time 1. Two weeks later, participants were divided into two groups and were presented a vignette about a transformational or a nontransformational leader. Subsequently, respondents were asked to rate the described leader's behavior on the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. Results revealed that followers high in extraversion tended to perceive more transformational leadership, and showed a more positive evaluation of transformational leadership than did followers with low extraversion. Moreover, perceived transformational leadership predicted the acceptance of a leader, but followers' personality traits did not moderate the relationship between perceived transformational leadership and acceptance.     

High-Performing Inner-City Adolescents Assist Low-Performing Peers in Counseling Groups

Operating from the theoretical base that the adolescent social system and group procedures could be incorporated into strategies for improving the school performance of disadvantaged students, a supervised program of peer leadership in counseling and study groups was developed for a group of inner-city high school students. A method of training students to be peer leaders in the groups was developed, and the effects of the program on the academic performance of the selected students were evaluated. In the demonstration program, the example of achieving peers and the support and reinforcement of a group with similar goals provided the impetus for inner-city high school juniors to develop better classroom skills, higher grades, and higher levels of vocational and educational aspirations and expectations.