压抑者对情绪和非情绪自传体记忆的提取诱发遗忘

该实验考察了压抑应对方式,高焦虑和低焦虑三组被试对不同情绪性自传体记忆的提取诱发遗忘的差异。结果表明,与情绪性自传体记忆比较,被试能回忆出更多非情绪性自传体记忆;正性,负性和非情绪性自传体记忆均能得到显著的提取诱发遗忘,但是提取练习对正性和非情绪性事件的回忆率的促进弱于负性事件。压抑者的提取诱发遗忘效应要小于另外两组,且对于负性自传体记忆,压抑者没有产生提取诱发遗忘。     

情绪一致性对有意遗忘的影响

有意遗忘是强调遗忘的有意性和指向性。对负性情绪的有意遗忘有利于个体的身心健康。本研究采用单字范式,实验一以正性、负性和中性情绪词为材料,探讨了情绪材料对有意遗忘的影响。结果发现,三类词语均表现出了显著的有意遗忘效应;实验二在实验一的基础上加入了情绪状态,探讨了情绪状态和情绪材料对有意遗忘的影响,结果发现,在积极情绪状态下,被试更多地遗忘负性情绪词;在消极情绪状态下,被试更多地遗忘中性词。表明个体对情绪信息的有意遗忘既受信息的情绪性影响,又受个体情绪状态的影响。     

提取诱发遗忘：项目强度与测试顺序的影响

提取诱发遗忘是指对先前学过的部分材料进行提取练习会使与练习材料相关的其它材料发生遗忘。目前该现象存在抑制与非抑制理论之争。本研究以64名大学生为被试,通过考察项目强度和测试顺序对提取诱发遗忘的影响,对上述争论进行了探讨。结果表明：（1）只有高强度项目才会引发提取诱发遗忘;（2）当控制由测试顺序所产生的输出干扰效应后,高强度项目仍然会引发提取诱发遗忘。本研究结果支持了提取诱发遗忘的抑制理论。     

负性情绪材料的定向遗忘及心理机制

采用项目法定向遗忘的研究范式,在两个实验中分别采用文字和图片材料考察了情绪性记忆定向遗忘的效果及其心理机制。实验中采用了中性和负性两种实验材料,设置了两种记忆指令出现时间（2秒后提示和5秒后提示）,相对于中性材料,被试更不容易忘记负性材料。记忆指令出现的时间只影响图片材料的定向遗忘。研究表明负性情绪会干扰定向遗忘,选择性编码理论可以解释情绪性文字材料的定向遗忘,而抑制理论更能解释情绪性图片材料的定向遗忘效应。     

定向遗忘中提取抑制的机制：成功提取引起抑制

两个实验采用无关材料考察了字表方式下提取诱发遗忘解释定向遗忘中提取抑制的可能性。在实验中,学习完两个字表后,对字表2 进行不同次数（0、1、3次）的提取练习以考察是否会增强定向遗忘效应以及定向遗忘效应是否随着提取练习次数的增加而增强。实验一中,字表2提取练习是要求被试回忆字表2项目,不给予线索提示。在实验二中,采用词干补笔测验的形式对字表2进行提取练习,词干补笔测验保证了对字表2项目的成功提取。研究结果发现,只有在实验二中对字表2的成功提取练习增强了定向遗忘效应,从而表明成功提取可以解释定向遗忘中的提取抑制     

提取练习在定向遗忘中的作用

根据汉字特点采用义同、形似、音同、无关四种实验材料,采用字表范式探讨不同提取练习次数(0、1、3次)在定向遗忘中的作用及是否会受到材料关系的影响.实验结果发现: (1)对于形似、音同材料,提取练习提高了最后回忆成绩.对于义同、无关材料,提取练习对不同组别两列字表的最后回忆成绩影响不同; (2)提取练习0次时,义同、音同、无关材料都表现出定向遗忘效应.提取练习1次时,无关材料表现出定向遗忘效应.提取练习3次时,形似、音同材料下表现出定向遗忘效应.义同、无关材料定向遗忘效应随着提取练习次数的增加而消失,形似材料随着提取练习次数的增加出现定向遗忘效应; (3)对于四种材料,遗忘组被试都没有随提取练习次数的增加而更多抑制字表1回忆,即字表l的回忆成绩都没有表现出随提取练习次数的增加而降低的趋势,所以能否用提取诱发遗忘来解释定向遗忘的提取抑制还需要进一步的实验验证.     

情绪性记忆的定向遗忘效应

刺激的情绪性具有增强记忆的效果,那么,带有情绪信息的刺激对遗忘又会产生怎样的影响？已有研究从行为及认知神经机制层面探讨了情绪性刺激对定向遗忘效应的影响,但结果并不一致。总结已有文献发现,以情绪性刺激的材料类型、情绪效价、唤醒度和熟悉度为主的客观因素和以被试的情绪状态为主的主观因素均为影响定向遗忘效应产生及其稳定性的重要原因。这类研究是对有意遗忘研究领域的重要补充,也加深了人们对有意遗忘机制的理解。     

情绪对项目记忆和来源记忆的影响

最近几十年以来, 情绪对记忆的影响越来越受到认知心理学家的关注。本文总结了我在中科院心理研究所师从傅小兰研究员攻读博士学位期间所开展的主要研究工作。我的研究以中文词语为学习材料, 分别考察了在编码过程中和编码结束后诱发情绪对项目记忆和来源记忆的影响。当情绪在编码阶段被诱发, 主要的研究发现如下：1)负性情绪增强自由回忆, 但正性情绪只呈现出增强自由回忆的趋势。2)负性情绪降低总体再认记忆, 但正性情绪对总体再认记忆没有影响。此外, 正性和负性情绪均不影响“记得”反应的正确率; 然而, 负性情绪降低了“知道”反应的正确率, 正性情绪对“知道”反应的正确率没有影响。3)正性和负性情绪均对来源记忆(即对词语字体颜色的记忆)没有影响。当情绪在编码结束后被诱发, 主要的研究发现如下：1)对女性被试而言, 负性情绪增强了项目记忆的巩固, 然而, 对男性被试而言, 正性和负性情绪均不影响项目记忆的巩固。2)无论对男性还是女性被试, 正性和负性情绪对来源记忆的巩固均没有影响。本研究的上述发现对建立情绪和记忆的关系具有理论意义, 对如何在教学情境中如何利用情绪诱发促进学生的记忆巩固也具有现实指导意义。     

提取诱发遗忘中的情绪记忆权衡效应

情绪记忆的提取诱发遗忘研究是近年来记忆研究领域的热点问题,但是尚无一致的结果。在现实生活中,我们所面临的情绪事件十分复杂,不仅包含核心的情绪信息,还包括边缘非情绪信息,研究已发现,人们对于这些复杂情绪事件不同成分的记忆效果也不是完全相同的。本研究通过2个实验分别探讨提取练习整张复杂情绪图片和提取练习复杂情绪图片的背景成分时的提取诱发遗忘现象。结果表明:(1)无论提取练习完整信息还是相关的边缘信息,均在提取诱发遗忘中存在显著的情绪记忆权衡效应;(2)消极情绪项目像中性项目一样也能产生提取诱发遗忘效应;(3)不论提取图片的完整信息还是背景信息,都仅在中心项目上表现出提取诱发遗忘,边缘背景没有出现提取诱发遗忘。     

负性情绪刺激对大学生多目标追踪能力的影响

探讨了负性情绪对大学生多目标追踪能力的影响以及其影响机制。实验要求被试在观看国际情绪图库中的负性或中性图片后,完成多目标追踪和点探测任务,同时设置基线条件作为对照。采用状态-特质焦虑量表和贝克抑郁自评量表考察不同情绪图片条件下被试的诱发情绪状态。研究结果发现：（1）被试观看负性情绪图片后状态焦虑程度和抑郁量表评分显著提高,观看情绪图片有效诱发了被试的负性情绪;（2）基线条件下的被试追踪正确率显著低于中性条件,基线条件和负性图片条件下的追踪正确率无差异,说明训练可以提高被试的多目标追踪能力,但负性情绪抑制了被试在基线追踪任务中的训练效果;（3）负性图片条件下的点探测觉察率显著低于中性图片条件,说明负性情绪影响了被试的注意资源分配。研究结果表明：负性情绪可能干扰了被试目标导向的注意系统,使得个体更易受刺激驱动的注意系统影响,并且在追踪过程中影响被试中央执行系统的抑制和转移功能。     

Remembering can cause forgetting--but not in negative moods

Repeated retrieval of a subset of previously observed events can cause forgetting of the non-retrieved events. We examined how affective states experienced during retrieval modulate such retrieval-induced forgetting by inducing positive, negative, and neutral moods in subjects immediately before they attempted to retrieve studied items. On the basis of recent work, we hypothesized that positive moods encourage relational processing, which should increase interference from related events and thus enhance retrieval-induced forgetting. By contrast, negative moods should encourage item-specific processing, which should reduce interference and thus reduce such forgetting. Our results are consistent with these predictions. When subjects were in negative moods, repeated retrieval did not cause forgetting of the non-retrieved material, whereas when subjects were in positive and neutral moods, they showed reliable retrieval-induced forgetting. Our findings suggest that the emotions involved during interrogation of a witness can affect the result of repeated interrogations.     

Retrieval-induced forgetting of negative stimuli: The role of emotional intensity

Repeatedly retrieving a subset of previously studied items can cause forgetting of related non-retrieved material. We examined whether such retrieval-induced forgetting holds also for negative material. Participants studied neutral and negative stimuli and then repeatedly retrieved a subset of the neutral material. Later, a recall test was conducted in which participants were asked to recall all previously studied items. On average, retrieval practice on the neutral items caused the same amount of forgetting for neutral and negative items, indicating that the emotionality of material does not affect retrieval-induced forgetting. More detailed analysis, however, revealed that the forgetting of negative items decreased with both the emotional intensity of a negative item and the dispositional negative affectivity of a participant. The decreases in retrieval-induced forgetting may have been driven by item-specific processing of material, which is known to be enhanced for highly negative stimuli and participants high in dispositional negative affectivity and to reduce or even eliminate retrieval-induced forgetting.     

Positive moods can eliminate intentional forgetting

People can intentionally forget previously studied information if, after study, a forget cue and new material to be encoded are provided. We examined how the affective state people experience during encoding of the new material modulates such directed forgetting. Positive, negative, and neutral moods were induced immediately before the new material was studied. The study materials themselves were neutral. The results showed sustained forgetting of the previously studied materials in negative moods but an elimination of the forgetting in positive moods. These findings agree with the effects of mood found for other cognitive tasks. They suggest that in positive moods, associative networks are activated, which leads to reactivation of List-1 items, and thus to elimination of the directed forgetting effects. These results contrast with recent reports on the role of emotional content in directed forgetting, which have described equivalent effects for neutral and emotional materials. Together, our findings suggest that directed forgetting is mainly affected by mood, and hardly at all by emotional content.     

自我与提取诱发遗忘现象

考察了提取诱发遗忘现象在自我参照、母亲参照和他人参照加工条件下的不同表现,结果发现在前两种加工条件下都没有出现提取诱发的遗忘,而他人参照条件下则表现有这种遗忘,由此以提取诱发遗忘研究的实验范式证明了中国被试中自我参照加工与母亲参照加工相对于一般他人参照加工的优势。这一结果表明,对于中国被试来说,自我参照加工和母亲参照加工任务不仅可能会在总回忆量方面高于他人参照加工,而且经过这两类加工的材料在提取过程中不会形成对相关材料的抑制。另外,实验结果还说明母亲参照加工对于中国被试来说是提取诱发遗忘的一种边界条件。     

Retrieval-induced forgetting occurs in tests of item recognition

Using the retrieval-practice paradigm (Anderson, R. A. Bjork, & E. L. Bjork, 1994), we tested whether or not retrieval-induced forgetting could be found in item recognition tests. In Experiment 1, retrieval practice on items from semantic categories depressed recognition of nonpracticed items from the same categories. Similar results were found in Experiment 2 in a more stringent source test for practiced, nonpracticed, and new items. These results conceptually replicate those of previous retrieval-induced forgetting studies done with cued recall (e.g., Anderson et al., 1994). Our findings are inconsistent with the hypothesis that item-specific cues during retrieval will eliminate retrieval interference in the retrieval-practice paradigm (Butler, Williams, Zacks, & Maki, 2001). We discuss our results in relation to other retrieval interference and inhibition effects in recall and recognition.     

No retrieval-induced forgetting using item-specific independent cues: evidence against a general inhibitory account

Retrieval practice with particular items from memory can impair the recall of related items on a later memory test. This retrieval-induced forgetting effect has been ascribed to inhibitory processes (M. C. Anderson & B. A. Spellman, 1995). A critical finding that distinguishes inhibitory from interference explanations is that forgetting is found with independent (or extralist) cues. In 4 experiments, the authors tested whether the forgetting effect is cue-independent. Forgetting was investigated for both studied and unstudied semantically related items. Retrieval-induced forgetting was not found using item-specific independent cues for either studied or unstudied items. However, forgetting was found for both item types when studied categories were used as cues. These results are not in line with a general inhibitory account, because this account predicts retrieval-induced forgetting with independent cues. Interference and context-specific inhibition are discussed as possible explanations for the data.     

A strategy disruption component to retrieval-induced forgetting

Retrieval-induced forgetting refers to a paradoxical occurrence wherein the act of remembering some material disrupts the retrieval of other, related material (see, e.g., M. C. Anderson, R. A. Bjork, & E. L. Bjork, 1994). This effect is generally accounted for in terms of inhibitory processes. Across three experiments, we test the inhibitory account of retrieval-induced forgetting, as well as whether there may be a strategy disruption component to the effect. In our first two experiments, we manipulate which items individuals are cued to recall during retrieval practice and demonstrate that retrieval-induced forgetting can be neutralized when those items do not interfere with the individual's retrieval strategy. In the third experiment, we confirm this finding with a different set of stimuli. These results are inconsistent with a purely inhibitory account of retrieval-induced forgetting, and we discuss implications for inhibition theory and strategy disruption in light of these and other findings.     

The effect of practice on recall of emotional information in individuals with generalized social phobia

Understanding memory processes in social anxiety is important because these individuals often report negative memories of anxiety-provoking situations and because of the recent emphasis on learning and memory in models of anxiety. The authors examined the effect of learning on memory for negative social, positive social, and nonsocial information using the retrieval-induced forgetting paradigm in individuals with generalized social phobia (GSPs) and in nonanxious controls (NACs). Words were presented in 1 of 3 practice conditions: practiced words from a practiced category, unpracticed words from a practiced category, and unpracticed words from an unpracticed category. GSPs and NACs showed the same patterns of memory for practice categories for positive social and nonsocial words. However, for negative social words, GSPs benefited less from practice and were hurt less from the effect of practicing competing negative social information than were NACs. This pattern of processing may hamper GSPs' learning of, and habituation to, negative social information.