语言转换对非熟练双语者不同认知控制成分的即时影响

语言转换情境是否影响非熟练双语者的认知控制存在争议。实验1和实验2分别采用不同的实验范式探讨语言转换对非熟练双语者的认知控制是否会有即时的影响, 以及对不同认知控制成分的影响是否会有不同。结果表明, 语言转换情境能够即时地促进反应抑制, 阻碍干扰抑制, 但对认知灵活性没有影响, 同时说明了反应抑制、干扰抑制和认知灵活性属于3种不同的认知成分, 其内在作用机制不同。此外, 研究结果还进一步说明了双语者的认知控制优势是双语者长期双语使用的结果, 为双语优势的内在机制提供了实验支持。     

语言产生过程中非目标语言的激活与抑制

运用长时重复启动范式, 探讨熟练和非熟练中－英双语者语言产生过程中非目标语言的激活与抑制。实验1探讨双语被试在学习阶段使用中文进行图片命名任务时, 非目标语言英文概念层面的激活与抑制情况, 结果发现, 两种熟练水平的被试均没有出现重复启动效应; 实验2探讨双语被试在学习阶段使用英文进行图片命名任务时, 非目标语言中文概念层面的激活与抑制情况, 结果发现, 熟练双语被试没有出现重复启动效应, 而非熟练双语被试出现了重复启动效应; 实验3探讨非熟练双语被试在学习阶段使用英文进行图片命名任务时, 非目标语言中文词汇层面的激活与抑制情况, 结果没有出现重复启动效应。综合三个实验的结果可以表明, 熟练中－英双语者语言产生过程中在概念层面上就对非目标语言(不管是一语还是二语)进行了抑制, 而非熟练中－英双语者使用一语时可以在概念层面上抑制非目标语言(二语), 但使用二语时不能在概念层面上抑制非目标语言(一语), 要在词汇层面上才能抑制非目标语言(一语)。     

词汇熟悉度对非熟练中英双语者语言理解转换中非目标语言激活的影响

采用改造后的长时重复启动范式,探讨母语为汉语的非熟练中英双语者语言理解转换中非目标语言的激活层面,以及词汇熟悉度的影响。实验1考察学习阶段不同熟悉度的非目标词在测验阶段呈现时能否出现长时重复启动效应,从而检测双语者语言理解转换中非目标语言是否自动激活,实验2探究学习阶段不同熟悉度的非目标词在测验阶段以翻译对等词呈现时能否出现长时重复启动效应,从而检测双语者语言理解转换中非目标语言的语义层面能否激活。结果发现:非熟练中英双语者语言理解转换中非目标语言不管为中文还是英文,都能自动激活,但激活层面会受到词汇熟悉度的影响;当非目标语言为二语时,熟悉度高的二语词能激活到语义层面,熟悉度低的二语词只能激活到词汇层面;当非目标语言为一语时,不管词汇熟悉度高还是低,都能够激活到语义层面。     

熟练双语者负性情绪干扰下的认知优势效应:来自2-back的证据

熟练双语者在空间工作记忆中存在认知优势,但是在负性情绪干扰下熟练双语者在空间工作记忆中是否存在认知优势尚不清楚。空间工作记忆和负性情绪均以大脑右半球为优势脑区,加工效能理论认为空间工作记忆和负性情绪的加工使用同样的认知资源。研究采用情绪空间2-back任务,探究在负性情绪刺激干扰下的空间工作记忆任务中熟练双语者是否存在认知优势。结果表明,熟练双语者在该任务中表现出比非熟练双语者更高的正确率和更短的反应时。这一结果说明,尽管存在负性情绪刺激的干扰,相比非熟练双语者,熟练双语者在空间工作记忆中仍然表现出了认知优势。     

认知灵活性对非熟练双语者语言转换的影响--一项ERPs研究*

采用 WCST 筛选出高低认知灵活性的非熟练汉英双语者,分别使用图片命名和语义范畴判断任务考察认知灵活性对双语者语言转换的影响。结果发现：(1)高认知灵活性被试的双语转换代价是对称的,其N2成分的平均波幅和峰值显著大于低认知灵活性被试,低认知灵活性被试的转换代价是非对称的;(2)高认知灵活性被试在语言产生任务中, L2重复条件下N2的峰值显著大于L1重复条件,出现L2重复优势效应;(3)在语言理解任务中,高低认知灵活性被试在L1重复条件下的N2峰值显著大于L2重复条件,两组均出现了L1重复优势效应。研究表明,抑制控制能力在语言产生与理解的双语转换中起着重要的作用,语言转换代价源于心理词典的字词识别系统之外。     

傣-汉双语小学生词汇选择过程中的抑制控制

双语者在词汇选择过程中进行两种语言之间的转换称为语码切换。实验1采用语码切换范式,探讨不同熟练程度傣-汉双语小学生的语码切换代价。结果发现,傣-汉双语小学生在语码切换任务中产生了切换代价,且熟练与非熟练双语小学生均存在切换代价的不对称现象,切换至汉语的代价大于切换至傣语的代价。基于实验1发现的语码切换代价不对称现象,实验2选取刺激-刺激和刺激-反应相容任务,对傣-汉双语小学生的语码切换代价的抑制控制机制进行深入研究。结果发现,熟练双语小学生的抑制控制能力比非熟练双语小学生强,二者的差异主要表现在反应抑制阶段。     

Stroop范式中不同语言条件下的双语优势效应

目的:采用Stroop范式探讨不同语言条件下的双语优势效应。方法:两个实验均为2(被试类型)x 3(色词一致性)的混合实验设计,被试为熟练双语者和非熟练双语者。结果:(1)L1条件下熟练双语者的Stroop效应量小于非熟练双语者,L2条件下无显著差异。(2)熟练双语者在两个实验条件下的平均反应时均小于非熟练双语者,L2条件下的易化效应量显著大于非熟练双语者。结论:(1)熟练双语者在L1条件下的抑制控制能力好于非熟练双语者,体现了"双语优势效应";(2)熟练双语者在Stroop干扰任务中可能比非熟练双语者具有更好的信息监控能力。     

不同熟练双语儿童注意定向中的抑制控制

研究目的：探讨不同熟练双语儿童“注意定向”成分中抑制控制的差异,及这一差异是否依赖于双语儿童第二语言的熟练程度。方法：采用IOR范式的行为实验。被试为平衡、未平衡双语儿童和单语儿童。结果：SOA600ms时,三组被试均出现了IOR,平衡双语儿童与单语儿童的IOR效应量差异显著,其余被试间差异均不显著。结论：（1）双语学习促进了平衡双语儿童抑制控制能力的发展。（2）双语学习对抑制控制能力的促进作用依赖于双语儿童第二语言的熟练程度。     

第二语言水平对双语者语言抑制能力的影响——来自英语–汉语单通道双语者和英语–美国手语双通道双语者的证据

采用同形异义词干扰任务考察第二语言水平对英语–汉语单通道双语者和英语–美国手语双通道双语者语言抑制能力的影响。结果发现:(1)高水平英语–汉语单通道双语者的语言抑制能力较强,但低水平英语–汉语单通道双语者与英语单语者的语言抑制能力没有显著差异,说明少量的双语经验不足以导致双语认知优势;(2)不同水平的英语–美国手语双通道双语者的语言抑制能力差异不显著。所以如此,与英语–美国手语双通道双语者不存在口语和手语的双语表征加工竞争有关。整个研究表明,双语认知优势效应与双语者的二语水平以及通道经验有关。     

双语者语言切换代价的影响因素

抑制控制、语言熟练度、任务相关因素和工作记忆容量是双语者语言切换代价的重要影响因素。其中,抑制控制抑或语言熟练程度何者主要调节着双语者的语言切换代价成为抑制控制模型和语言特异性选择模型争论的焦点。为此,未来研究需要在二语习得年龄与语言使用情景等因素是否影响双语者的控制机制、语言切换代价与任务转换代价的本质是否相同、语言切换代价和工作记忆之间的关系及其认知可塑性等领域予以进一步探索。     

工作记忆更新任务中的认知优势效应

目的：采用N-back范式,探讨熟练双语者与非熟练双语者之间工作记忆更新能力的差异,以验证双语优势效应是否存在于工作记忆更新任务中。方法：采用数字型2-back任务,两因素混合实验设计。自变量分别为被试间变量(熟练双语者与非熟练双语者）和被试内变量（低难度任务组和高难度任务组）,因变量为2-back任务中目标刺激、非目标刺激、诱惑刺激和非诱惑刺激的准确率和反应时。结果：熟练双语者与非熟练双语者在低难度的2-back任务（一般的2-back任务）中,目标刺激和非目标刺激的准确率和反应时上没有差异;在高难度任务组（有冲突的2-back任务）中,熟练双语者在非目标刺激、诱惑刺激和非诱惑刺激的准确率显著高于非熟练双语者。结论：工作记忆更新中的“双语优势效应”更容易体现在高执行功能需求的条件下。     

语言转换影响双语认知优势的发展进程

本研究包括两部分,第一部分对双语转换问卷进行修订,用于客观测量双语者的语言转换能力;第二部分采用数字命名任务考察语言转换对双语认知优势发展进程的影响。结果发现,在低水平阶段,语言转换频率与转换消耗存在显著负相关;在高水平阶段,语言转换频率与转换消耗、混用消耗均存在显著负相关。结果说明,语言转换首先影响瞬时转换能力,积累一定的经验之后,才会对持续监控能力与抑制控制能力产生积极影响。本研究结果表明,双语认知优势效应的发展具有一定的顺序性。     

Components of executive control with advantages for bilingual children in two cultures

The present study used a behavioral version of an anti-saccade task, called the ‘faces task’, developed by [Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Ryan, J. (2006). Executive control in a modified anti-saccade task: Effects of aging and bilingualism. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 32, 1341-1354] to isolate the components of executive functioning responsible for previously reported differences between monolingual and bilingual children and to determine the generality of these differences by comparing bilinguals in two cultures. Three components of executive control were investigated: response suppression, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility. Ninety children, 8-years old, belonged to one of three groups: monolinguals in Canada, bilinguals in Canada, and bilinguals in India. The bilingual children in both settings were faster than monolinguals in conditions based on inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility but there was no significant difference between groups in response suppression or on a control condition that did not involve executive control. The children in the two bilingual groups performed equivalently to each other and differently from the monolinguals on all measures in which there were group differences, consistent with the interpretation that bilingualism is responsible for the enhanced executive control. These results contribute to understanding the mechanism responsible for the reported bilingual advantages by identifying the processes that are modified by bilingualism and establishing the generality of these findings across bilingual experiences. They also contribute to theoretical conceptions of the components of executive control and their development.     

Effects of Bilingual Language Use and Language Proficiency on 24-month-olds’ Cognitive Control

ABSTRACT

Although a bilingual advantage has been reported for various measures of cognitive control, most previous studies have looked at a limited range of cognitive control measures. Furthermore, they typically leave unaddressed whether positive effects of bilingualism hold for all bilinguals or whether these are modulated by differences in bilingual language use and proficiency of children and their parents. This study reports on tasks of selective attention and inhibitory control from 24-month-old bilinguals (n = 37) and monolinguals (n = 58). Their parents completed a Dutch vocabulary checklist assessing receptive and productive vocabulary as well as questionnaires on children’s attentional focusing, attention shifting and inhibitory control, and language background. Linear mixed-effect regressions showed no differences on cognitive control between the monolinguals and bilingual groups. However, analyses taking into account differences in children’s bilingual language use and proficiency and of their parents revealed a more nuanced picture. Specifically, children’s degree of balanced language usage predicted parent-rated cognitive control. Furthermore, bilingual toddlers who had parents were low proficient in one of the home languages showed significantly better performance on a selective attention task than toddlers whose parents were both proficient in both home languages. These findings suggest that both children’s active usage of two languages and their experience with switching depending on their interlocutor are related to cognitive control performance in young bilingual children. As such, they add to a growing body of evidence that the bilingual advantage in cognitive control is tied to specific conditions of bilingualism, already at a young age.     

Cognitive control and word recognition speed influence the Stroop effect in bilinguals

Bilinguals have been shown to be less susceptible to Stroop interference in their first language than monolinguals, though the cause is currently being debated. In two experiments, we explored how cognitive control and word recognition contribute to the Stroop effect by contrasting cognitive control (via a Simon arrow task), word recognition speed (via a Chinese/English word recognition task) and Stroop susceptibility (via a verbal Stroop task) between proficient and non‐proficient Chinese–English bilinguals. Compared to non‐proficient bilinguals, proficient bilinguals showed better cognitive control at inhibiting irrelevant information, and they were slower at recognising Chinese words but quicker at recognising English words. Critically, we also showed that proficient bilinguals showed a smaller Stroop effect than non‐proficient bilinguals in Chinese but a comparable Stroop effect as non‐proficient bilinguals in English. The results cannot be accounted for by cognitive control or word recognition speed alone; instead, they are best accommodated by assuming that cognitive control and word recognition speed jointly determine the Stroop effect. Thus, we conclude that enhanced cognitive control and delayed word recognition combine to reduce Stroop effect in bilinguals as compared to monolinguals.     

非熟练中-英双语者英语句子语义通达的语境效应

设计不同的语境条件, 并采用图-词语义一致性判断来探测非熟练中-英双语者英语句子的语义通达性, 结果表明, 在无语境条件、语义无关动画或语义相关文本伴音语境下, 非熟练中-英双语者表现出英语句子语义通达的非选择性, 而形象和语义一致的动画语境能使他们有效限制对等的L1句子构成词汇的激活, 并表现出目标句语义通达的选择性。这说明, 语境可以影响弱势语识别阶段的非选择激活, 相关的语境影响双语通达的理论也由此被讨论。     

Neuropsychological,Cognitive, and Theoretical Considerations for Evaluation of Bilingual Individuals

As the number of bilinguals in the USA grows rapidly, it is increasingly important for neuropsychologists to be equipped and trained to address the unique challenges inherent in conducting ethical and competent neuropsychological evaluations with this population. Research on bilingualism has focused on two key cognitive mechanisms that introduce differences between bilinguals and monolinguals: (a) reduced frequency of language-specific use (weaker links), and (b) competition for selection within the language system in bilinguals (interference). Both mechanisms are needed to explain how bilingualism affects neuropsychological test performance, including the robust bilingual disadvantages found on verbal tasks, and more subtle bilingual advantages on some measures of cognitive control. These empirical results and theoretical claims can be used to derive a theoretically informed method for assessing cognitive status in bilinguals. We present specific considerations for measuring degree of bilingualism for both clients and examiners to aid in determinations of approaches to testing bilinguals, with practical guidelines for incorporating models of bilingualism and recent experimental data into neuropsychological evaluations. This integrated approach promises to provide improved clinical services for bilingual clients, and will also contribute to a program of research that will ultimately reveal the mechanisms underlying language processing and executive functioning in bilinguals and monolinguals alike.