词汇飞跃: 早期语言发展的里程碑──来自五名汉语儿童的跟踪报告

本文通过对五名汉语儿童的长期跟踪调查,旨在从词汇增长、句法出现和语义发展三方面发掘词汇飞跃时期儿童的语言特征。结果显示：儿童在18个月左右词汇迅猛增长,出现词汇飞跃现象;标志句法出现的词语组合和词汇飞跃在时间上紧密相连;词汇飞跃期儿童语义发展显著,体现为过度延伸词的逐渐减少及下位层次词的逐渐增加。词汇飞跃是汉语儿童早期语言发展的里程碑,表明其在词汇、句法和语义多个语言层面的飞跃。     

识字量和词汇知识在儿童阅读发展中的相对重要性

本研究基于简单阅读观理论,以两个样本共计666名大班至四年级的汉语儿童为研究对象,探索了识字量和词汇知识在儿童阅读能力发展中的作用及相对重要性的变化。结果显示,在阅读学习早期,识字量对阅读理解的重要性高于词汇知识。随着年级的升高,识字量的重要性降低,而词汇知识的重要性增加。这一发现证实简单阅读观理论也适用于解释汉语阅读能力的发展,并对今后的语文教学具有重要的启示意义。     

汉语词汇语义记忆的再研究

本研究在前一项研究的基础上进一步探讨汉语词汇的语义提取问题。结果表明,事例的典型性影响语义提取的时间,再一次证实语义层次网络模式没有普遍意义。汉语中下位词包含上位词这一特殊的组词方式和汉字中含有表意的偏旁部首这一特殊的字形结构,对被试熟悉的词汇语义提取时间没有影响,但它们有助于被试确定罕见词的语义内容。     

简单算术对汉语特定句型的结构启动

结构启动是指个体在产生或理解一个结构时,倾向于重复使用或仿照刚刚加工过的结构。与句法启动不同的是,结构启动除了以句子,也可以以其它抽象结构作为启动项。Scheepers et al. (2011) 首次以具有结构偏向性的抽象算式作为启动项,证实了高附着和低附着的简单算式对英语母语者产出高附着和低附着关系从句具有结构启动效应。在此基础上,本研究引用数学算式作为启动项,以汉语特定句型结构NP1+有+NP2+恨+(AP)为切入点,分别选取汉语成人和儿童受试,检验简单算式对汉语母语者产出或理解特定句型的结构启动效应。本研究发现：1）算式结构对汉语特定句型的产出具有结构启动效应。2）算式结构对汉语歧义句的解读具有结构启动效应。3）儿童和成人在产出和理解的启动实验中具有不同结构启动效应,且儿童的结构启动效应比成人的结构启动效应更强。4）算式结构和语言句式在认知上具有共享的结构表征。     

汉语儿童量化否定句理解的发展

本研究旨在考察汉语儿童对量化否定句和双重否定句理解的发展。被试为4岁到13岁的儿童共166人。结果表明:1.5岁儿童能理解基本的双重否定句。2.通过句法和语义复杂性的分析,可以较准确地预测儿童理解各种量化否定句和双重否定句的顺序。作者假设有若干具体的机制(或策略)主导儿童对置化否定句和双重否定句的理解反应。     

词汇飞跃的本质:命名洞察力的实证研究

通过个案跟踪和控制实验探讨了词汇飞跃的本质。研究结果表明命名洞察力具有现实性,且词汇飞跃与命名洞察力的出现紧密相关,这在一定程度上解释了儿童词汇量快速增长的原因。命名洞察力的获得促进了词汇的快速增长,标志着儿童建立起词汇与指称之间的匹配关系。词汇飞跃之后,儿童很快建立起词语间的符号关系,并最终促进了儿童语法的发展。基于此实证结果,本研究还建构了诠释词汇飞跃本质的理论模型。     

语素意识、语音意识和快速命名在学前儿童言语能力发展中的预测作用:来自追踪研究的证据*

为探讨语素意识、语音意识和快速命名三种认知技能对汉语儿童口语词汇、汉字识别和阅读理解等言语能力发展的预测作用,本研究对74名学前儿童进行了一年半的追踪测查,结果发现:(1) 学前儿童的各项认知技能和言语能力随时间均有显著提高;(2)在控制了因变量的自回归效应和其他两种认知技能后,语音意识对一年半后的口语词汇成绩仍有独特的解释作用,快速命名能预测一年半后的汉字识别成绩,而语素意识是解释一年半后儿童汉字识别和阅读理解能力发展的重要变量。     

儿童早期词汇获得的跨语言/文化研究

婴儿词汇学习是国际语言发展研究的前沿领域, 但大多数研究都是以英语婴儿为研究对象。目前国内关于汉语婴儿早期语言发展研究处于起步阶段。由于汉语在词法、句法等方面具有明显的特殊性, 另外, 成人“言语输入”的语用习惯以及非言语线索都会影响婴儿早期词汇学习, 使得不同语言文化下的婴儿呈现不同的单词学习模式。本项目力图从跨语言视角考察汉语和英语婴儿的早期单词学习(包括单词的理解和产生)以及促进婴儿语言发展的成人言语和非言语输入特征。研究将综合采用实验室实验、半结构化实验室观察和量表测量等研究方法, 利用新的研究技术(如习惯化和IPLP), 从多个角度探索婴儿词汇发展, 以及不同语言文化和个体环境对婴儿早期词汇学习的影响, 揭示词汇获得的跨语言一致性和特异性。研究结果有望对儿童的语言学习提供启示。     

汉语语音范畴性知觉及其发展

范畴性是言语知觉的一个显著特征,长期以来一直受到研究者的普遍关注。但汉语不同语音特征的范畴性知觉特点及其发展模式迄今为止还很少有研究涉及。本研究利用语音合成的方法分别改变辅音的送气/不送气特征和声调的基频曲线,生成语音刺激连续体,采用范畴性知觉的经典研究范式探讨了汉语正常成人被试嗓音启动时间（Voice onset time,VOT）和声调范畴性知觉的特点及不同年龄儿童的发展模式。研究结果表明：（1）成人被试对VOT和声调的知觉是范畴性的;（2）对于汉语声调特征,6岁儿童已经具有类似成人的范畴性知觉能力;而在VOT这一维度上,范畴知觉能力随着年龄发展不断精细化,但7岁儿童也尚未达到成年人的敏感程度,说明汉语VOT和声调这两个不同的语音特征经历了不同的发展模式。     

语素意识对学前儿童言语技能发展的预测作用：追踪研究的证据

为探讨词素意识、同形语素意识和形旁意识等不同层面语素意识对汉语儿童口语词汇、汉字识别和阅读理解能力发展的预测作用,本研究对75名学前儿童进行了一年半的追踪,结果发现:(1)学前儿童的语素意识和言语技能随时间均有显著增长。(2)在控制了因变量的自回归效应后,同形语素意识对一年半后的口语词汇成绩仍有显著的预测作用;词素意识能显著预测一年半后的汉字识别成绩;词素意识和形旁意识是儿童一年半后阅读理解成绩变异的重要解释变量。这表明语素意识对于学前儿童语言技能的发展具有重要的预测作用。     

Searching through the hierarchy: How level of target categorization affects visual search

Does the same basic-level advantage commonly observed in the categorization literature also hold for targets in a search task? We answered this question by first conducting a category verification task to define a set of categories showing a standard basic-level advantage, which we then used as stimuli in a search experiment. Participants were cued with a picture preview of the target or its category name at either superordinate, basic, or subordinate levels, then shown a target-present/absent search display. Although search guidance and target verification was best using pictorial cues, the effectiveness of the categorical cues depended on the hierarchical level. Search guidance was best for the specific subordinate-level cues, whereas target verification showed a standard basic-level advantage. These findings demonstrate different hierarchical advantages for guidance and verification in categorical search. We interpret these results as evidence for a common target representation underlying categorical search guidance and verification.     

Naming practices,typicality, and underextension in child language

Preschool children (3 to 5 years of age) in an initial study underextended superordinate labels. The labels (e.g., food) were not applied to category instances that were rated as atypical by adults (e.g., ketchup). In a second experiment, mothers seldom used a superordinate term in referring to pairs of the same atypical instances, but they did label pairs of typical instances with a superordinate. A third experiment demonstrated the effects of several word-referent modeling conditions on young children's comprehension of a superordinate term. The results were viewed as suggesting that the child undergeneralizes superordinate labels because adult naming practices are such that category instances having certain functional or perceptual attributes may be labeled with a superordinate, while other, dissimilar instances are almost always labeled with subordinate names instead of a superordinate.     

The Effects of Prior Processing Episodes on Basic level Superiority

Four experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of prior processing episodes on people's preference for categorizing objects at the basic level (e.g. dog) relative to their preference for categorizing at the superordinate (e.g. animal) and the subordinate (e.g. Dalmation) levels. The prior processing episode in Experiment 1 was designed to induce subjects to activate representations at the superordinate level, and those in the remaining experiments were designed to induce subjects to differentiate objects at the subordinate level. After the prior processing episodes, subjects performed either a free naming or a picture categorization task that required them to decide whether an illustrated object belonged to a specified category. Results showed that prior processing episodes modestly reduced the superiority of basic level to superordinate level and subordinate level in categorization but not in free naming. The results suggest that the basic-level advantage is subject to the effects of context, but the effects are not as strong as the context effects on other aspects of categorization behaviour (e.g. rating typicality of a category member). Hence, the preference for the basic level is a somewhat more stable, invariant aspect of conceptual representation. Possible determinations of this stability are discussed.     

The effect of hierarchical levels of categories on children's deductive inferences about inclusion

Although the hierarchical levels of categories have been recognized as a major factor of variation in categorical reasoning, few studies have examined its effect on the understanding of inclusion. This issue was approached by varying the levels (subordinate, basic, and superordinate) of categories involved in inference tasks assessing 5‐, 7‐, and 9‐year‐old children's understanding of transitivity and asymmetry of inclusive relations in the dog hierarchy. Children were administered both a qualitative inference task and a quantitative class‐inclusion task, each presenting different hierarchical levels. Results showed that the ability to make qualitative inferences assessing transitivity varied with age. Although children of all ages demonstrated a high rate of success at these inference questions, 7‐ and 9‐year‐olds had better performance than 5‐year‐olds, suggesting that the capacity to understand the transitivity of inclusive relations still develops until at least 7 years. However, the hierarchical levels of categories had no effect on children's performance either in qualitative inferences requiring transitivity understanding or in class‐inclusion problems. In contrast, for qualitative inferences assessing asymmetry, children's performance varied with the hierarchical level of the categories involved. Inferring from a superordinate to a basic level category, inferring from a superordinate to a subordinate level category, and inferring from a basic to a subordinate level category appeared as three levels of increasing difficulty. Our analyses also revealed that 7‐year‐olds were better at grasping the asymmetry in the superordinate‐to‐basic relation than in any other relation between categories of different hierarchical levels, and that their 9‐year‐old peers mastered the asymmetric nature of inclusion in both superordinate‐to‐basic and superordinate‐to‐subordinate relations. This might indicate that the different levels of difficulty observed are developmentally grounded. Though exploratory, these findings help to clarify the steps through which the child comes to grasp the difficult concepts of inclusion and asymmetry and give some indications on the possible constraints that may affect their acquisition.     

Effects of stimulus duration and choice delay on visual categorization in pigeons

We [Lazareva, O. F., Freiburger, K. L., & Wasserman, E. A. (2004). Pigeons concurrently categorize photographs at both basic and superordinate levels. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 11, 1111-1117] previously trained four pigeons to classify color photographs into their basic-level categories (cars, chairs, flowers, or people) or into their superordinate-level categories (natural or artificial). Here, we found that brief stimulus durations had the most detrimental effect on the basic-level discrimination of natural stimuli by the same pigeons. Increasing the delay between stimulus presentation and choice responding had greater detrimental effect on the basic-level discrimination than the superordinate-level discrimination. These results suggest that basic-level discriminations required longer stimulus durations and were more subject to forgetting than were superordinate-level discriminations. Additionally, categorization of natural stimuli required longer stimulus durations than categorization of artificial stimuli, but only at the basic level. Together, these findings suggest that basic-level categorization may not always be superior to superordinate-level categorization and provide additional evidence of a dissociation between natural and artificial stimuli in pigeons’ categorization.     

Categorization of two-dimensional and three-dimensional stimuli by 18-month-old infants

In two experiments, 18-month-old infants’ categorization of 3D replicas and 2D photographs of the same animals and vehicles were compared to explore infants’ flexibility in categorization across different object representations. Using a sequential touching procedure, infants completed one superordinate and two basic-level categorization tasks with 3D replicas, 2D cut out photographs, or 2D images on photo cubes (“2D cubes”). For superordinate sets, 3D replicas elicited longer mean run lengths than 2D cut outs, and 3D replicas elicited equivalent mean run lengths as 2D cubes. For basic-level sets, infants categorized high-contrast animal sets when presented with 3D replicas, but they failed to categorize any of the 2D photograph sets. Categorization processes appear to differ for 3D and 2D stimuli, and infants’ discovery of object properties over time while manipulating objects may facilitate categorization, as least at the superordinate level. These findings are discussed in the context of infants’ representation abilities and the integration of perception and action.     

The cradle of categorization: Is the basic level basic?

A common assumption in the developmental literature is that the earliest kind of conceptual categories to be formed are basic-level categories. A corollary assumption is that superordinate categories are formed after, and out of, previously acquired basic-level categories. Two experiments using an object-manipulation task explored these assumptions by studying response to a variety of categories in children aged from 12 to 20 months. The first experiment examined responses to basic-level categories (dogs vs. cars),superordinate categories (animals vs. vehicles), and contextual categories (kitchen things vs. bathroom things). At all ages tested, the children performed best on the basic-level categories but, even at 12 months of age, some children were responsive to the superordinate and contextual categories. By 20 months of age, approximately half of the children showed such sensitivity. The second experiment showed that 16- and 20-month-olds differentiated basic-level categories only when the categorical contrasts were taken from different superordinate classes (e.g., dogs vs. cars) and not when the categories were drawn from the same superordinate class (e.g., dogs vs. horses). The data suggest that basic-levels categories are not the first kind of conceptual categories to be formed. Instead, it appears that children may form more global categories, with basic-level differentiation occurring later.     

Representation at different levels in a conceptual hierarchy

The present study examines the influence of hierarchical level on category representation. Three computational models of representation – an exemplar model, a prototype model and an ideal representation model – were evaluated in their ability to account for the typicality gradient of categories at two hierarchical levels in the conceptual domain of clothes. The domain contains 20 subordinate categories (e.g., trousers, stockings and underwear) and an encompassing superordinate category (CLOTHES). The models were evaluated both in terms of their ability to fit the empirical data and their generalizability through marginal likelihood. The hierarchical level was found to clearly influence the type of representation: For concepts at the subordinate level, exemplar representations were supported. At the superordinate level, however, an ideal representation was overwhelmingly preferred over exemplar and prototype representations. This finding contributes to the increasingly dominant view that the human conceptual apparatus adopts both exemplar representations and more abstract representations, contradicting unitary approaches to categorization.     

9-26个月婴儿上位、基本和下位水平类别学习的发展顺序

该研究探索了9-26个月婴儿在上位水平类别、基本水平类别和下位水平类别的发展顺序。采用触摸屏式的序列触摸任务,36名婴儿参加实验,分9-14月、15-20月、21-26月三个年龄组。以平均序列长度作为组分析的因变量指标,以Dixon等（1998;2007）开发的Touchstat V3.0软件统计的归类者概率作为个别分析的因变量指标,结果表明,9-14个月、15-20个月和21-26个月三个年龄组的婴儿,都能显著地区分基本水平的类别;15-20个月和21-26个月婴儿,能够显著区分上位水平的类别;21-26个月的婴儿,能够区分下位水平的类别,说明了婴儿不同类别水平概念的学习,是按照基本水平（L2）,然后上位水平（L1）,最后才是下位水平（L3）的顺序发展的,即L2→L1→L3。