Susceptibility to sexual victimization and women’s mating strategies

Women show stable individual differences in mating strategies ranging from short-term to long-term. Short-term mating strategies may put women at greater risk of sexual victimization through increased exposure to risky situations or to men most inclined to pursue a strategy of sexual coercion. To test these predictions, we studied female college students who had experienced a completed rape, an attempted sexual victimization, or no sexual victimization. Women’s mating strategies were assessed through the Sociosexual Orientation Inventory. Victims further reported whether they engaged in consensual intimate behaviors with their victimizer before or after the victimization. Victims of completed rape scored highest on short-term mating strategy pursuit; non-victims scored lowest; women experiencing attempted victimization scored between these two groups. Victims of completed rape also more frequently reported consensual kissing and intercourse with their victimizer before and after the victimization than women who experienced attempted victimization. The findings of this study should not be interpreted as blaming the victim, but rather as identifying circumstances that put women at greater risk. Clearly, perpetrators are to blame for sexual victimization. Discussion focuses on future research directions and on practical implications for reducing rates of sexual victimization.     

Sexual trauma and personality: developmental vulnerability and additive effects.

Two types of sexual trauma, sexual abuse in childhood and rape in adulthood, were investigated in terms of possible effects on personality. Four groups of participants were studied: women who had experienced sexual abuse in childhood, women who had experienced rape as adults, women who had experienced both of these sexual traumas, and a control group of women who had experienced no sexual trauma. Personality functioning was assessed using the Dimensional Assessment of Personality Pathology. Groups who had experienced childhood sexual abuse displayed the highest degree of personality disturbance; however, the additive effects of repeated sexual trauma were limited. These findings may reflect the outcome of specific adversity in childhood on the psychobiological constructs underlying personality.     

Association of intimate partner violence with sociodemographic factors in married women: a population-based study in Iran

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a neglected public health issue in Iran. This study was conducted among married women residing in urban Rasht (northern Iran), to estimate the prevalence and frequency of different forms of IPV from husband and their associations with socio-demographic factors. We carried out a population-based cross-sectional survey with cluster sampling design from February to October 2015. The samples consisted of married women aged ≥ 18 years with total household in Rasht city (north Iran) as the sample frame. We administered the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS-2) to estimate prevalence of past-year IPV. Of 2091 women, 57.1% had suffered psychological aggression, 27.6% physical abuse, 26.6% sexual abuse, and 6.9% injury. A significant association with IPV was found for women with, age ≤ 40 years, unemployed, low education, husband’s addiction and rented-householders. Women who experienced physical abuse, had less age at marriage than women without violence. Also women with sexual coercion had less length of marriage than other non-abused women. On logistic regression, the strongest predictor of psychological, physical and sexual abuse was unemployment of spouse, whereas for injury it was low educational level (<12 years) of women. Our findings suggest that risk of IPV is high in our population. There is an obvious need of preventive and treatment activities. Our findings point at that various forms of abuse are different from each other in terms of differing characteristics of the perpetrators and it might be that also different strategies are needed to reduce and prevent these violence. Confirmation by further research is needed.     

Sexual dysfunction in women sexually abused as children

Women who were sexually victimized as children report problems in relating to both men and women. Studies have found that victims are less satisfied with their current sexual relationships and with the quality of their relationships with men in general. Fear of sex, arousal dysfunction and desire dysfunction were the most common sexual disturbances found in incest victims.The purpose of this paper was to examine the differences in sexual functioning in abused women who perceived themselves to be adjusted to the trauma of their sexual abuse and those who did not.A sample of 57 nonclinical adult women who had been sexually abused as children was studied. Data were analyzed by means of cross-tabulation, chi square statistics, analysis of variance, and multiple regression.Orgasm was experienced by 63% of the women. There was a significant interaction among ability to be an orgasmic, sexual esteem and adjustment to abuse. Over 56% of the women experienced physical discomfort during intercourse and 36% indicated that they needed sex therapy. The implications of these and other findings are discussed.     

The Association of Child Abuse and Eating Disorder Symptomatology

Abstract

Using self-report questionnaires, symptoms of eating disorders were examined in relation to child sexual (CSA), physical (CPA), and emotional abuse (CEA), and adult rape among 301 college women. CPA and adult rape were associated with fear of fatness and bulimic behavior. CEA, family cohesion and expressiveness, and adult rape were related to difficulties recognizing emotional states and satiety. Individuals who reported multiple forms of child abuse or who were revictimized exhibited the highest levels of symptoms. Revictimized women were more likely to report clinical levels of symptoms compared with individuals reporting adult rape without child abuse or child abuse without adult rape. Findings support the assumption that negative experiences in addition to CSA, such as adult rape and other forms of child abuse, influence eating pathology, and suggest a cumulative impact of abuse.     

Ethnic differences in female sexual victimization

This study examined the link between ethnicity, early sexual victimization experiences and college sesual assault in a sample of 383 undergraduate women. One third of the sample (32.9%) had experienced some form of sexual assault during college (22% of whom reported that they had been raped), and 52 percent had experienced unwanted sexual activity before the age of 18 (17.5% of whom reported that a family member or trusted family friend asked for or forced sexual activities). There were substantial differences among the Black, White, Hispanic and Asian women on two of four measures of college sexual assault. Black women had the highest and Asian women the lowest incidence of forced intercourse through verbal threats or pressure. Hispanic women had the highest and Black women the lowest incidence of attempted rape. Black and White women were almost three times as likely as Hispanic women to have had experiences that meet the legal definition of rape, but do not consider themselves rape victims. There were significant differences in college victimization experiences as a result of experiencing incest before age 18, experiencing extrafamilial sesual abuse before age 18, and the use of alcohol. Ethnicity interacted with alcohol use and early experiences with extrafamilial sexual abuse. However, the effect of incest on college victimization was similar for the women in the study, regardless of ethnicity.     

The credibility of sexual abuse allegations: Child sexual abuse, adult rape, and sexual harassment

Allegations and denials of sexual abuse often occur in a context in which there is rarely decisive evidence. The present study investigated the credibility of allegations of three kinds of sexual abuse—child sexual abuse, adult rape, and sexual harassment—that also contained a denial by the alleged perpetrator. Perceptions of fair punishment were investigated for the perpetrator if he did actually commit these acts and for the accuser if she was lying. Results indicated that allegations were generally rated in the credible direction. Allegations of child sexual abuse were rated more credible than allegations of rape or sexual harassment. Females found all allegations more credible than males. Males were more likely to believe allegations in the child sexual abuse condition than either the rape or sexual harassment conditions. Females were more likely to believe sexual harassment allegations. Punishments were generally the most severe for child sexual abuse, and psychotherapy was a popular disposition for both perpetrators and those making false allegations.     

Childhood trauma and marital outcomes in adulthood

Although existing research suggests that certain childhood traumas such as childhood sexual abuse are associated with interpersonal (e.g., marital) difficulties in adulthood, there has been limited research on interpersonal sequelae of other types of traumas. In addition, the association between childhood traumas and interpersonal outcomes has often been limited to a particular outcome such as divorce, and existing studies have rarely controlled for the co‐occurrence of other traumas when evaluating interpersonal outcomes. The current study sought to evaluate the associations between 7 childhood traumas and 2 marital outcomes—marital disruption (i.e., divorce and separation) and marital satisfaction—in a large, national probability sample. Results from univariate and multivariate analyses indicated that (a) probability of marital disruption was higher among people who during childhood had experienced physical abuse, rape, or serious physical attack or assault; and (b) current marital satisfaction was lower among people who during childhood had experienced rape or sexual molestation. Results support the importance of childhood traumas in predicting 2 important marital outcomes.     

Sex Differences in Evaluations of Female and Male Victims' Responses to Assault

In an investigation of perceptions of victim response to assult, 84 female and 70 male subjects read a narrative in which either a female or a male victim was roughly assaulted by a male stranger. The victim was described as either offering no resistance, resisting in a verbally aggressive manner, or resisting in a physically aggressive manner. Results of 3 × 2 × 2 ANOVA's revealed that women and men expected different outcomes for aggressive victim resistance. Women anticipated a worse outcome than did men, especially for victims who resisted. Men expected the most favorable outcome for the victim when he or she fought with the assailant; women expected the most positive outcome with nonresistance, especially for female victims. Female victims were seen as much more likely than male victims to be raped by the assailant. Women rated rape as a more likely outcome for physically aggressive victims while men considered rape least likely when the victim fought back. Sex differences in evaluations of victim resistance are discussed in terms of identification and empathy with the victim, goals of the victim's response strategy, and the expected effectiveness of aggressive and nonaggressive reactions to attack.     

The disturbed caregiving system: Relations among childhood trauma,maternal caregiving,and infant affect and attachment

The interrelations among maternal childhood experiences of physical or sexual abuse, adult trauma-related symptoms, adult caregiving behavior, and infant affect and attachment were investigated among 45 low-income mothers and their 18-month-old infants. A history of physical abuse was associated with increased hostile-intrusive behavior toward the infant, increased infant negative affect, and a decreased tendency to report trauma-related symptoms. A history of sexual abuse was associated with decreased involvement with the infant, more restricted maternal affect, and more active reporting of trauma-related symptoms. Infants of mothers who had experienced childhood violence or abuse were not more likely to display insecure attachment strategies than infants of mothers who had not experienced trauma. However, the form of insecure behavior was significantly different. Insecure infants of violence-exposed mothers displayed predominantly disorganized strategies, whereas insecure infants of mothers with benign childhoods or neglect only displayed predominantly avoidant strategies. Results are discussed in relation to Main and Hesse's (1990) concept of frightened or frightening behavior and to current literature on psychological sequelae of trauma.     

MEMORIES OF CHILDHOOD SEXUAL ABUSE

Women involved in out-patient treatment for substance abuse were interviewed to examine their recollections of childhood sexual abuse. Overall, 54% of the 105 women reported a history of childhood sexual abuse. Of these, the majority (81 %) remembered all or part of the abuse their whole lives; 19% reported they forgot the abuse for a period of time, and later the memory returned. Women who remembered the abuse their whole lives reported a clearer memory, with a more detailed picture. They also reported greater intensity of feelings at the time the abuse happened. Women who remembered the abuse their whole lives did not differ from others in terms of the violence of the abuse or whether the violence was incestuous. These data bear on current discussions concerning the extent to which repression is a common way of coping with childhood sexual abuse trauma, and also bear on some widely held beliefs about the correlates of repression.     

A review of marital rape

The current paper represents a comprehensive review of marital rape, including its legal history and numerous aspects of its perpetration and victimization. Specifically, this review focuses on theories and forms of marital rape, the scope of the problem, risk factors, resistance strategies, and marital rape's psychological and physical effects, and help-seeking behaviors and interventions for victims. Historically, marital rape has not been recognized as a criminal act; only recently has marital rape become illegal in all 50 states. Marital rape is a serious societal issue that is experienced by 10% to 14% of all married women and 40% to 50% of battered women. Marriages in which marital rape occurs have significantly higher rates of non-sexual violence and marital dissatisfaction, as well as lower ratings of marital quality. Victims who resist marital rape often employ verbal means of resistance. However, most of marital rape victims are either unable or afraid to resist sexual aggression by their husbands. Victims of marital rape experience significant levels of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, gynecological problems, and negative physical health symptoms. Victims of marital rape seek help from a variety of different resources. Seeking help from social service agencies and the law appears to be the most effective behaviors for ending marital rape. Stress inoculation therapy and cognitive processing therapy are promising treatments for victims of marital rape. The literature on marital rape is characterized by considerable methodological problems, and further research is needed to gain a better understanding of this problem.     

Traditional and Nontraditional Women's Attributions of Responsibility to Physically Resistive and Nonresistive Rape Victims1

This research examined the interactive effect of women observers' sex-role attitudes and a victim's use of physical resistance on perceptions of victim responsibility for a sexual assault. Women read one of two rape scenarios in which a victim either did or did not physically resist a rapist's attack and made judgments concerning victim responsibility. The observers were categorized as being either traditionally conservative or nontraditionally profeminist in their attitudes toward women and their roles in society. An analysis of responsibility judgments indicated that traditional women perceived a victim who resisted the attack as being more responsible for her own victimization than did nontraditional women, whereas nontraditional women assigned more responsibility to a victim who did not resist than did traditional women. These results are considered from a sex-role socialization perspective; the implications of these findings for legal and health care professionals are discussed.     

Additive impact of childhood emotional,physical, and sexual abuse on suicide attempts among low-income African American women

This study examines the association between exposures to multiple forms of childhood abuse (emotional, physical, sexual) and adult suicidal behavior in a sample of low-income, African American women. We hypothesized a linear relation between childhood abuse and risk for making a suicide attempt, such that the more forms of childhood abuse to which a woman was exposed, the greater her risk would be to make a suicide attempt. Logistic regression analyses revealed that, compared to women who did not report any experiences of childhood abuse, women who experienced one, two, or three forms of abuse were 1.83, 2.29, or 7.75 times more likely to attempt suicide, respectively (all statistically significant). Furthermore, compared to women who reported one or two types of abuse, women who reported all three types of abuse were statistically more likely to attempt suicide. These findings have implications for clinicians working with African American women who report either childhood abuse or exhibit suicidal behavior.     

Family Violence and Health Among Elderly in Croatia

This article presents the research carried out on a sample of 303 elderly men and women. In the last year they reported experiencing violence in the family as follows: psychological abuse (24.1%), financial exploitation (6.4%), physical abuse (4.4%), and sexual abuse (2.1%). The abusers were most often husbands (30.15%), sons (16.64%), daughters (14.01%), and wives (9.21%). In the partner relationship, 44%?of the women and 35%?of the men had experienced at least some form of violence. The results showed that elderly men and women who were victims of family abuse had poorer psychological health than those without such experiences. Elderly who had experienced partner violence consumed alcohol more often than those who had experienced violence by other household members.     

Clinically abusive relationships in an unselected birth cohort: men's and women's participation and developmental antecedents

In an unselected birth cohort (N=980, age 24-26 years), individuals in abusive relationships causing injury and/or official intervention (9% prevalence) were compared with participants reporting physical abuse without clinical consequences and with control participants who reported no abuse, on current characteristics and prospective developmental risks. In nonclinically abusive relationships, perpetrators were primarily women. In clinically abusive relationships, men and women used physical abuse, although more women needed medical treatment for injury. Women in clinically abusive relationships had childhood family adversity, adolescent conduct problems, and aggressive personality; men had disinhibitory psychopathology since childhood and extensive personality deviance. These findings counter the hibitory assumption that if clinical abuse was ascertained in epidemiological samples, it would be primarily man-to-woman, explained by patriarchy rather than psychopathology.