Some unsettled problems in behavioral neuroscience research

The goal of behavioral neuroscience is to map psychological concepts onto physiological and anatomical concepts and vice versa. The present paper reflects on some of the hidden obstacles that have to be overcome in order to find unique psychophysiological relationships. These are, among others: (1) the different status of concepts which are defined in the two domains (ontological subjectivity in psychology and ontological objectivity in physiology); (2) the distinct hierarchical levels to which concepts from the two domains may belong; (3) ambiguity of concepts, because—due to limited measurement resolution or definitional shortcomings—they sometimes do not cover unique states or processes; (4) ignored context dependencies. Moreover, it is argued that due to the gigantic number of states and state changes, which are possible in a nervous system, it seems unlikely that neuroscience can provide exact causal explanations and predictions of behavior. Rather, as in statistical thermodynamics the transition from the microlevel of explanations to the macrolevel is only possible with probabilistic uncertainty.     

How research in behavioral pharmacology informs behavioral science

Behavioral pharmacology is a maturing science that has made significant contributions to the study of drug effects on behavior, especially in the domain of drug-behavior interactions. Less appreciated is that research in behavioral pharmacology can have, and has had, implications for the experimental analysis of behavior, especially its conceptualizations and theory. In this article, I outline three general strategies in behavioral pharmacology research that have been employed to increase understanding of behavioral processes. Examples are provided of the general characteristics of the strategies and of implications of previous research for behavior theory. Behavior analysis will advance as its theories are challenged.     

Competition: Some behavioral issues

Conclusions drawn from research in the social sciences comparing the quality or quantity of performance under cooperation and competiton stress the advantages of cooperation. This generalization may be premature, however, because of the paucity of experimental analyses investigating variations in competitive conditions. Neglected in particular have been variables that affect reinforcement conditions among competitors. These include performance differences, the basis of reinforcement, reinforcer distribution, and stimuli that indicate the performances of other competitors. These variables provide the basis for a behavioral interpretation of performance under competition. The result is a clearer understanding of the options that are available in instituting competitive contingencies and the areas in which experimental analyses are needed.     

Digital filters in behavioral research

Behavioral control is almost always less than perfect. Rate of response is rarely as constant as it could be even when the greatest care is given to experimental procedures. Experimenters should always attempt to identify the causes of variation. Some fluctuations in response rate will be random, i.e., sometimes positive and sometimes negative, usually small but occasionally large. Digital filters are objective methods for reducing or eliminating such unsystematic “noise” components while preserving the systematic changes in response rate under study. Digital filters function in a manner that is strictly analogous to electronic filters. The major purpose of this technical note is to describe digital filters and to provide an example of their usage.     

Interface systems in behavioral research

The methods and criteria to be used for the design of a general interface system are evaluated in the light of the number, variety, and variability of the data points in behavioral experimentation. A simple and flexible interface scheme is presented that should satisfy the needs of a behavioral research laboratory.     

Some temporal properties of behavioral contrast

Pigeons were rewarded on a variable time interval for pecking a translucent key illuminated with either a 45 degrees or a vertical line. The key illumination changed every 2 min during daily 1-hr sessions. When the rates of pecking were stable, reinforcement was omitted in the presence of the 45 degrees line. Responding in the presence of the vertical line increased. This increase did not disappear when responses to the 45 degrees line were once more reinforced, but when reinforcements for responses in the presence of the 45 degrees line were again omitted, responding to the vertical line increased again. After the second alternation of these two procedures, the increased responding to the vertical line appeared when responses were not reinforced in the presence of the 45 degrees line, and disappeared when reinforcement was available during both stimuli. In a second experiment, the key illumination changed between sessions only, so that 1-hr sessions of reinforcement and non-reinforcement occurred on alternate days. Responding to the vertical line still increased when responding to the 45 degrees line was not reinforced, but the increase tended to disappear during the session.     

Some aspects of predatory behavior

Predatory behavior is conceived of as a loose chain of responses including searching for relevant stimuli, hunting or chasing potential prey, capturing or attacking prey, and killing and feeding on prey. These aspects, which may occur independently, are described and discussed separately with an emphasis on mammalian species of carnivores. Particular attention is paid to opportunism in prey selection, specific searching images with their possible antecedents, the role of hunger in prey attack, and the phenomenon of surplus killing. Finally a discussion of mouse killing by rats attempts to show similarities between this and other more traditional examples of predation.