Meta-analysis of the reduced relative feedback frequency effect on motor learning and performance

A fundamental motor learning principle conveyed in textbooks is that augmented terminal feedback frequency differentially affects motor learning and performance. The guidance hypothesis predicts that relative to a reduced frequency of feedback, providing learners with feedback following every practice trial enhances practice performance but degrades subsequent motor learning. This change in effectiveness for each relative feedback frequency is called a reversal effect, and because it is thought that practice variables can have distinct impacts on learning and performance, delayed retention tests are considered the gold standard in motor learning research. The objectives of this meta-analysis were to a) synthesize the available evidence regarding feedback frequency, performance, and motor learning to test whether there are significant changes in effectiveness from acquisition and immediate retention to delayed retention, b) evaluate potential moderators of these effects, and c) investigate the potential influence of publication bias on this literature. We screened 1662 articles found in PubMed and PsycINFO databases as well as with reference tracing and a targeted author search. A final sample of 61 eligible papers were included in the primary analysis (k = 75, N = 2228). Results revealed substantial heterogeneity but no significant moderators, high levels of uncertainty, and no significant effect of reduced feedback frequency at any time point. Further, multilevel analyses revealed no evidence of a significant change in effect from acquisition or immediate retention to delayed retention. Z-curve analysis suggested the included studies were severely underpowered. These results suggest that robust evidence regarding feedback frequency and motor learning is lacking.     

Emergent patterns of feedback strategies in performing a closed motor skill.

This sturdy identified self-chosen patterns of feedback usage and how they influenced accuracy and consistency in performing a closed motor skill. Learners completed 100 practice trials with 25 opportunities to receive knowledge of results (KR), the timing of which was self-chosen, followed by 25 no KR retention trials. The study identified two patterns of self-chosen KR, namely, a faded frequency pattern and a reversed faded frequency pattern. Analyses of variance indicated a significant trial block effect for accuracy in acquisition and no significant main effects or interactions associated with self-chosen patterns of KR. Quantification of regularity of KR patterns yielded correlations indicating that less regularity was associated with greater accuracy in performing the task. These results were congruent with previous research on self chosen feedback.     

Task-dependent changes in visual feedback control: a frequency analysis of human manual tracking

Prominent components in the frequency spectrum of human manual tracking responses are thought to reflect the visual feedback control loop and have been used in estimations of the visual feedback loop delay. The frequency structure of human tracking was therefore examined here in two tasks: visually guided tracking of slow and fast pseudorandom targets. Visually related frequency components were identified by testing, in each condition, the effect of adding additional feedback delays on the frequency spectrum. The major frequency components of the responses consisted of a fundamental component and its odd harmonics. These components were related to the visual feedback loop delay and shifted in concert toward lower frequencies as the feedback delay was increased. Furthermore, there were no differences in responses between 3 normal subjects and 1 subject with peripheral sensory loss. This implies that the frequency structure is dominated by the visual feedback control loop, without significant influence from proprioceptive control loops. However, the feedback-loop delay was shown to decrease from around 341 to 264 ms as the task speed doubled. Thus the estimates of visual feedback delays are influenced by the target being followed, and this suggests that the subjects can lquot;tunerquot: their feedback system to suit the demands of the tracking task.     

Effects of Positive and Negative Behavioral Feedback on Subsequent Attitude-Related Action

ABSTRACT This study examined the effect of positive and negative behavioral feedback on subsequent behavior The results indicate that positive and negative feedback concerning how well individuals have acted on their attitudinal in the past have different effects on subsequent behavior These effects are moderated by individual differences in self-monitoring and in the frequency with which an individual has acted on his or her attitude in the past–variables which can be seen as reflecting differences in the extent to which individuals see themselves as persons who act on their attitudes, either in general or in regard to a specific attitudes domain Implications of the findings for understanding the literature on labeling and on feedback about energy use are discussed, as are the practical implications for using behavioral feedback in an effort to increase attitude-related action     

Sequential and myopic: On the use of feedback to balance cost and utility in a simulated electricity efficiency task

While there is extensive research on feedback, little research is aimed at the use of feedback to optimise conflicting goals. A task modelled after In Home Displays for providing feedback about electricity cost was designed to investigate the effects of feedback frequency, detail, and stability, when participants try to balance cost and utility. Frequent feedback proved to be advantageous in a deterministic system, but feedback aggregated over time was advantageous in a system with noisy feedback. Surprisingly, performance was better with noisy feedback, where the probabilism, in effect, acted as a filter, highlighting the applications that are most important for the cost and the utility. Computational modelling suggested that the best-fitting model assumes that the participants are sequential, considering one goal at a time, first satisfying the cost budget, only thereafter trying to maximise the utility, and reflexive, myopically responding primarily to the feedback explicitly available on a given trial.     

Performance feedback and maintenance of staff behavior residential settings

The literature on staff management reveals a problem in maintaining performance after training programs. The research suggests that maintenance will be maximized by providing regular feedback to relevant personnel, and that feedback, even when self-management procedures are incorporated, should be based on independent observations of client behavior. Outcome measures should indicate changes in client behavior that are valued by staff. There are times, however, when process feedback is also necessary.     

Feedback from research participants: are member checks useful in qualitative research?

It is often assumed that use of so-called “member checks” improves the credibility of qualitative research. Published literature mentioning member checks was reviewed to identify the purposes and procedures for seeking feedback from research participants as well as outcomes reported from member checks. Four themes reflecting underlying assumptions about the purposes of research that have implications for member checks were identified: theory generalisation, representation, participation, and change. Member checks are unlikely to be relevant to research focussed on theory development and generalisation. For other types of research, member checks might be justifiable, but there was little evidence that member checks improved research findings. Member checks can be useful for obtaining participant approval for using quotations or case studies and where anonymity cannot be guaranteed. In evaluation, stakeholder reviews of draft reports can be seen as good research practice. In participatory or collaborative research, ongoing contact might include member checks.     

Analysis of public verbal feedback as a staff management procedure

We evaluated public verbal feedback as a potentially effective and efficient means of improving institutional staff performance. Following baseline observations of the self-help training conducted by three groups of direct care staff with clients who had profound mental retardation, verbal feedback was presented publicly to individual staff during routine staff meetings. The feedback addressed the (in)frequency of the staffs training endeavors and required only a few minutes to present. Results indicated that each group of staff increased their client training when the public verbal feedback was provided. Probes of client self-help skills indicated that as the frequency of staff-conducted training increased, client skill acquisition improved. Generalization measures indicated that staff increased only those work behaviors for which they received feedback. Results are discussed regarding the efficiency of public verbal feedback as a means of improving staff performance, as well as the need for research to continue expanding and refining a technology of staff management.     

Performance feedback and self-focused attention in the classroom: When past and present interact

An experiment tested the impact of performance feedback on self-focused attention in high and low achievers. On the basis of previous research, which suggested that inconsistent feedback (i.e., feedback which contradicts one's performance history) receives considerable attention, it was predicted that such feedback would increase self-focus regardless of its valence (i.e., positive or negative). As predicted, high achievers were more self-focused when receiving failure feedback than when receiving success feedback or no feedback. The low achievers were more self-focused when receiving success feedback than when receiving failure feedback or no feedback. These findings are discussed in relation to Kluger and DeNisi's (1996) Feedback intervention theory and the literature on self-focused attention.     

积极情绪反馈对注意捕获影响的实验研究

目的：研究采用“学习-测试”范式,通过3个实验探讨积极社会情绪反馈对注意捕获的影响。方法：实验1,在学习阶段做出反应后,分别给予积极情绪和中性情绪反馈,探讨积极情绪和中性情绪捕获注意的情况;实验2,学习阶段做出反应后,没有任何情绪反馈;实验3,改变学习阶段积极情绪和中性情绪反馈图片出现的频率,探讨图片出现频率对注意捕获的影响。结果：（1）与中性情绪相比,积极情绪捕获了较多注意（实验1）;（2）无情绪反馈时,经过多次练习的刺激作为干扰刺激也捕获到了注意（实验2）;（3）积极情绪影响刺激注意优先性的过程还受到积极情绪图片出现频率的影响（实验3）。结论：积极情绪捕获注意的机制中,也有自上而下目标驱动的机制在起作用;情绪图片出现的频率也会影响社社会情绪对注意的捕获。     

A Process Model of Goal Orientation and Feedback Seeking

This study investigated antecedents of seeking different types of feedback. Individual differences in goal orientation and cost and value perceptions were proposed as antecedents of seeking different types of feedback. We hypothesized that 4 dimensions of cost and value perceptions of feedback seeking (expectancy value, appraisal value, ego cost, and self-presentation cost) are related to an individual's goal orientation. Furthermore, moving beyond a focus on the frequency of feedback seeking, we proposed that the perceptions of costs and values of feedback seeking influence the preference for and choice among 4 distinct feedback types (diagnostic, normative, assurance, and no feedback). A total of 240 students participated in a computer-simulated work setting. Results were largely consistent with the hypotheses; each goal orientation had a unique pattern of relations with the perceptions of costs and values. Cost and value perceptions, in turn, influenced preference and choice for feedback type. The theoretical implications of the research are discussed.     

Reviewing Videotape in Supervision: A Developmental Approach

The authors review the extant literature on the use of videotape technology in supervision and, on the basis of an empirically supported developmental model of supervision, offer guidelines to supervisors on the use of videotape feedback. Suggestions are also offered for future research in this area.     

The learning of 90° continuous relative phase with and without Lissajous feedback: external and internally generated bimanual coordination

Results from recent experiments (e.g., Kovacs, Buchanan, & Shea, 2009a–b, 2010a,b) suggest that when salient visual information is presented using Lissajous plots bimanual coordination patterns typically thought to be very difficult to perform without extensive practice can be performed with remarkably low relative phase error and variability with 5 min or less of practice. However, when this feedback is removed, performance deteriorates. The purpose of the present experiment was to determine if reducing the frequency of feedback presentation will decrease the participant's reliance on the feedback and will facilitate the development of an internal representation capable of sustaining performance when the Lissajous feedback is withdrawn. The results demonstrated that reduced frequency Lissajous feedback results in very effective bimanual coordination performance on tests with Lissajous feedback available and when feedback is withdrawn. Taken together the present experiments add to the growing literature that supports the notion that salient perceptual information can override some aspects of the system's intrinsic dynamics typically linked to motor output control. Additionally, the present results suggest that the learning of both externally and internally driven bimanual coordination is facilitated by providing reduced frequency Lissajous feedback.     

On the mechanisms and effects of feedback in group psychotherapy

Group psychotherapists commonly see feedback as one of the primary mechanism that furthers the goals of the group. This paper will summarize the research that has been done on the mechanisms leading members to produce feedback, the factors that induce members to accept feedback (for example, feedback valence and timing), and the effects of feedback on outcome and aspects of group process such as group cohesion. The article will address the practical implications of these findings for the interventions of the group psychotherapist. As will be discussed, the emphasis on the importance of feedback in the interpersonal group psychotherapy literature exceeds the programmatic research that has been done on basic questions. This paper will identify major lines of future investigation that could yield findings critical to the delivery of effective group psychotherapy such as the information processing sequences that underlie feedback delivery and reception.     

Situational and Individual Determinants of Feedback Seeking: A Closer Look at the Process

The present study investigated the effects of situational (the feedback seeking context) and individual (public self-consciousness and self-esteem) determinants on the feedback seeking process (cf. Ashford & Northcraft, 1992; Northcraft & Ashford, 1990). A model was developed based on past research and theory (Ashford & Cummings, 1983; Larson, 1989; Morrison & Bies, 1991) which attempts to explicate how both situational and individual variables fit into this complicated process. Multiple measures of the seeking process were used to further our understanding in this area. Individuals′ intent to seek feedback, feedback seeking frequency, and the tendency to reconsider and modify their initial intentions were measured behaviorally over time. The importance of each of these variables was empirically demonstrated through the use of a computerized scheduling task on which individuals had the opportunity to request feedback. The results provide new insight into the feedback seeking process and have widespread organizational implications. Some new directions for feedback seeking research are also suggested.     

The role of coaches' passion and athletes' motivation in the prediction of change-oriented feedback quality and quantity

ObjectivesThe provision of an autonomy-supportive change-oriented feedback has been identified as a crucial coaching behaviour that is beneficial for athletes' phenomenological experience and performance. Based on past research that focused on the determinants of other autonomy-supportive coaching behaviours, the present study investigates coaches' passion toward coaching and coaches' perceptions of their athletes' motivation as potential determinants of the quality (i.e., the extent to which it is autonomy-supportive) and quantity of the change-oriented feedback that coaches provide.DesignQuantitative cross-sectional study using a dyadic approach.MethodsIn total, 280 athletes and 48 coaches participated in this study. Coaches and athletes both filled out a questionnaire after a training session. Coaches reported their passion and evaluated their athletes' motivation, whereas the provision of feedback was assessed by athletes. HLM analyses were used to take into consideration the hierarchical structure of the data.ResultsHLM analyses showed that only obsessive passion was a significant predictor of change-oriented feedback quality. The more coaches reported having an obsessive passion toward coaching, the less their change-oriented feedback was autonomy supportive. Results pertaining to feedback quantity showed that the more coaches were obsessively passionate and the more they perceived their athletes as being motivated, the more they gave change-oriented feedback. In contrast, when controlling for athletes' age and gender, the more coaches were harmoniously passionate, the less change-oriented feedback they tended to give.ConclusionsResults are discussed in light of their contribution to the passion, self-fulfilling prophecies and feedback literature.     

The impact of feedback frequency on learning and task performance: Challenging the “more is better” assumption

Previous research on feedback frequency suggests that more frequent feedback improves learning and task performance (Salmoni, Schmidt, & Walter, 1984). Drawing from resource allocation theory (Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989), we challenge the “more is better” assumption and propose that frequent feedback can overwhelm an individual’s cognitive resource capacity, thus reducing task effort and producing an inverted-U relationship with learning and performance over time. We then propose that positive and negative affective states will moderate the inverted-U relationship between feedback frequency and task performance. We test these propositions in an experimental study where the frequency of task feedback is manipulated. Results show that feedback frequency exhibits an inverted-U relationship with task performance, and this relationship is mediated by task effort. This curvilinear relationship is then moderated by individual’s positive affective state.     

Group-based self-regulation: The effects of regulatory focus

We review a programme of research on responses to group-based feedback—specifically, on how the source, content, and context of feedback intersect to produce individual willingness to accept both criticism and praise and to change one’s actions accordingly. We first explore the conditions under which group-directed criticism is most effective in terms of stimulating willingness to amend group practices. This is followed by the investigation of the effectiveness of different types of group-based praise, and an analysis of the identity-verifying properties of positive feedback. Finally, we consider the effects of feedback delivered simultaneously at group and individual levels, and explore the reciprocal implications of feedback content for source categorisation. Throughout, we focus on the role of identity concerns and group image management in responses to feedback. We discuss how this approach fits with other areas of literature, including research on self-verification and strategic behaviour in intergroup contexts.     

Using performance feedback to enhance implementation fidelity of the problem-solving team process

Implementation integrity is a potentially critical issue for problem-solving teams (PST) and most response-to-intervention models. The current study hypothesized that providing performance feedback, which has consistently been shown to increase implementation integrity, to PSTs would enhance the procedural integrity of the process. The PSTs for three elementary schools were provided performance feedback with a 20-item checklist created from the literature. A multiple-baseline design across schools revealed an immediate change in level after providing performance feedback. The resulting percentages of non-overlapping data were 90.9%, 90.0%, and 100%. However, PSTs still did not monitor student progress, assess the effectiveness of the intervention, or measure the integrity with which the intervention was implemented even after receiving feedback. Thus, providing performance feedback could be a method to increase the fidelity with which critical components of data-based problem-solving are implemented, but these data suggest the need for additional research.     

The role of experience in children's developing folk epistemology: review and analysis from the theory–theory perspective

The role of experience in children's developing folk epistemology, specifically in their acquisition of an understanding of belief, is explored from the theory–theory perspective (i.e., the perspective claiming that children's conceptual development can be viewed as analogous to scientific theory development) through a selective review and analysis of extant empirical literature. Three types of investigations are identified: examinations of observed relationships between social experiences and belief understanding, attempts to facilitate the reasoning of children on the verge of belief understanding through experiences intended to compel children to face reasoning inconsistencies; and training studies demonstrating that children can be trained to understand belief over time through specific feedback experiences. A comparison of these studies reveals that experience is defined differently across them, resulting in varying and sometimes ambiguous implications for a theory–theory perspective on development. Implications for future research are discussed.