团体心理治疗中凝聚力的概念及测量研究述评

团体心理治疗中的凝聚力最初多被定义为人际信任、吸引和卷入,随着研究的深入,凝聚力的概念逐渐向多维的方向发展。对凝聚力的测量主要有MacKenzie的团体氛围量表、Lese等的治疗因素-凝聚力分量表及Piper的凝聚力量表等。目前团体心理治疗领域的研究对凝聚力的认识缺乏一致性。从凝聚力的概念建构着手,探索团体心理治疗过程,开发评估工具,构建系统的理论和模型,是值得国内研究者关注的方向。     

社会分类的概念、线索及影响机制

作为社会认知的基本过程和重要途径,社会分类对预测刻板印象和群际感知、减少多元文化群体中的关系冲突、促进推理与决策以及指导社会关系推断等都有重要作用。人们进行社会分类的线索可以概括为明显线索和模糊线索、自然线索和社会线索以及静态线索和动态线索。社会分类会受到分类对象、情境和感知者等的作用,同时对人们认知、情绪、情感和行为等产生一系列影响。未来可以基于跨文化和发展视角探讨社会分类的线索偏向、潜在机制及立足本土文化检验社会分类的影响及干预策略。     

On the asymmetry in the cognitive construal of ingroup and outgroup: A model of egocentric social categorization

A model of egocentric social categorization (ESC-model) is presented. It predicts an asymmetry in the cognitive construal of ingroups and outgroups which is traced back to an egocentrism in the cognitive differentiation of the social world. The more specific assumptions are: (1) At the most basic level of cognitive differentiation, the perceiver distinguishes between the categories ME and NOT-ME. (2) This basic level categorization predicates an asymmetry in the cognitive construal of ingroup and out-group as social categories: The ingroup is construed as a heterogeneous aggregate of separate entities and the outgroup as a homogeneous social category. (3) Egocentric social categorization thus facilitates self-definition in terms of personal identity relative to self-definition in terms of social identity. The ESC-model is highly relevant to research on perceived ingroup and outgroup homogeneity. Moreover, it alerts researchers to the possibility of ‘quasi-intergroup’ situations in which the outgroup, but not the ingroup, is a salient entity. This article also discusses the relationship between the ESC-model and self-categorization theory and points out some prospects for future research.     

Friendship and group identification: a new look at the role of cohesiveness in groupthink

This article proposes that research has failed to clarify the causal role of group cohesiveness in groupthink because of a failure to distinguish cohesiveness from friendship. To remedy this, a conceptual distinction, based on social identity theory, is drawn between positive regard grounded in interpersonal relations (personal attraction, friendship), and solidarity grounded in group identification (depersonalized social attraction, true group cohesiveness)—Hogg (1992). An experiment compared the roles of friendship and social attraction in groupthink. Four-person discussion groups of friends, or socially attractive or random groups of strangers, made decisions (N=472). Background conditions for groupthink were established, and a wide range of subjective and behavioural measures of friendship, identification/social attraction, and the decision-making process were taken. Analyses isolated effects associated with friendship/personal attraction, from those associated with identification/social attraction. Friendship was found to be weakly and negatively related to symptoms of groupthink, while group identification and social attraction were strongly and, with some exceptions, positively related to symptoms of groupthink. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Examining Relationships Between Ethnic Identity, Family Environment, and Psychological Outcomes for African American Adolescents

Ethnic identity has been linked to a number of healthy psychological outcomes for African American adolescents. The levels of conflict and cohesion in the family environment have also been found to be predictive of adolescent mental health. This study examined whether the ethnic identity and levels of conflict and cohesion in the family environments were related to adolescents’ psychological adjustment. Participants included 61 African American adolescents, ages 10–14 years old, and their parents. Hierarchical regression models were used to determine the cumulative effects of ethnic identity and family functioning on adolescent mental health, specifically adolescent levels of depression, self-esteem, and interpersonal functioning. Results indicated that having a positive ethnic identity and a cohesive family environment were most strongly associated with psychological adjustment. Implications of these results are discussed in terms of family interventions.     

Consequences of Economic Inequality for the Social and Political Vitality of Society: A Social Identity Analysis

Economic inequality has been found to have pernicious effects, reducing mental and physical health, decreasing societal cohesion, and fueling support for nativist parties and illiberal autocratic leaders. We start this review with an outline of what social identity theorizing offers to the study of inequality. We then articulate four hypotheses that can be derived from the social identity approach: the fit hypothesis, the wealth-categorization hypothesis, the wealth-stereotype hypothesis, and the sociostructural hypothesis. We review the empirical literature that tests these hypotheses by exploring the effect of economic inequality, measured objectively by metrics such as the Gini coefficient as well as subjectively in terms of perceptions of economic inequality, on wealth categorization (of others and the self), the desire for more wealth and status, intergroup hostility, attitudes towards immigrants, prosocial behavior, stereotyping, the wish for a strong leader, the endorsement of conspiracy theories, and collective action intentions. As we will show, this research suggests that economic inequality may have even more far-reaching consequences than commonly believed. Indeed, investigating the effects of economic inequality on citizens' sociopolitical behaviors may be increasingly important in today's turbulent political and social landscape.     

Attitudes in social context: A social identity perspective

Research on attitudes and attitude phenomena occupies a central place in social psychology, but tends to focus mainly on cognitive, intra-individual, and interpersonal dimensions. The normative, group membership, and identity dimensions of attitudes tend to attract less attention. This article approaches attitudes from the perspective of research on group processes, intergroup relations, and social identity, and conceptualises attitudes and attitude phenomena in terms of their group normative properties and dynamics. Our perspective is explicitly framed and focused by contemporary social identity theory—a theory that has a great deal to contribute to attitude research, but often does not talk directly about attitudes. We discuss attitudinal influence and change, how people perceive normative attitudes, and how attitudes relate to action.     

Social Categorization in Intergroup Contexts: Three Kinds of Self‐Categorization

In reviewing self‐categorization theory and the literature upon which it is based, we conclude that individuals' attempts to form social categories could lead to three kinds of self‐categorization. We label them intergroup categorization, ingroup categorization, and outgroup categorization. We review literature supporting these three types and argue that they can help to explain and organize the existing evidence. Moreover, we conclude that distinguishing these three kinds of self‐categorization lead to novel predictions regarding social identity, social cognition, and groups. We offer some of those predictions by discussing their potential causes (building from optimal distinctiveness and security seeking literatures) and implications (on topics including prototype complexity, self‐stereotyping, stereotype formation, intergroup behavior, dual identity, conformity, and the psychological implications of perceiving uncategorized collections of people). This paper offers a platform from which to build theoretical and empirical advances in social identity, social cognition, and intergroup relations.     

Social categorization and the formation of group stereotypes: Further evidence for biased information processing in the perception of group-behavior correlations

An experiment tested the hypothesis that the mere categorization of people into social groups spontaneously instigates a mechanism through which group-relevant information is perceived and processed in a biased manner. This in turn may result in the erroneous perception of correlation between group and behavior. Subjects were initially assigned to be members of a minority group, a majority group, or were not assigned to a group. They were then presented with a series of statements that described members of the two groups performing either desirable or undesirable behaviors. Results showed that unaffiliated subjects perceived an illusory group-behavior correlation, indicating the operation of a cognitive bias to associate the minority group with distinctive behaviors. Subjects who were themselves members of the observed groups perceived illusory correlations that favored their own group, indicating a very different sort of bias. The results suggest that a categorization-based ingroup favoritism guided the manner in which group information was processed. These data lend support to the contention that social categorization spontaneously instigates specific cognitive mechanisms that contribute to group stereotype formation.     

性别同一性的形成及研究角度发展

性别的同一性是自我同一性的一部分,是人格和社会化发展的重要内容。性别的同一性概念已经从性同一性转移到性别同一性。对性别同一性的研究角度经过了概念认知、图式认知和社会认知的探索,目前开始进入人际关系角度的研究。最后,提出了对性别同一性未来的研究展望。     

Cohesiveness and Performance on an Additive Task: Evidence for Multidimensionality

Abstract

This experiment contrasted two predictions regarding the effects of two types of cohesiveness on the performance of American students. Task-based cohesion and interpersonal cohesion were manipulated independently. Results show that high task cohesion facilitated performance, whereas interpersonal attraction had no apparent effect on production. Increases in interpersonal cohesion did, however, result in higher task commitment and more frequent interactions among group members. A path analysis suggested that potentially beneficial effects on production of increasing task commitment were obviated by the increased conversation also resulting from interpersonal cohesion. These data suggest that cohesiveness should be conceptualized as a multidimensional rather than as a unitary variable.     

群体交叉分类效应的代数模型及其潜在加工过程

交叉分类被认为是一种能够有效减少群际偏见的方法。交叉分类效应的代数模型主要包括平均模型、相加模型和等价模型,各个模型都有自己成立的证据,其中支持相加模型的研究证据最多。尽管如此,交叉分类效应的代数模型有很明显的局限,即要求所有进行交叉的类别维度权重相等,这与真实社会情境是相矛盾的。交叉分类的潜在加工过程主要有基于认知角度的类别差异模型和基于动机角度的社会认同两种比较成熟的理论,前者又分为类别差异消除模型和类别差异减少模型。     

Social comparison and social identity: Some prospects for intergroup behaviour

Recent studies have reported that the variable of social categorization per se is sufficient for intergroup discrimination. This paper presents an explanation of these findings in terms of the operation of social comparison processes between groups based on the need for a positive ingroup identity. The relationship between perceived social identity and intergroup comparison is elaborated theoretically, and it is argued that social comparisons give rise to processes of mutual differentiation between groups which can be analyzed as a form of ‘social’ competition. Social competition is distinguished from realistic competition (conflict of group interests). New data is reported which strengthens this interpretation of the ‘minimal’ categorization studies. It is found that minimal intergroup discrimination takes place in the distribution of meaningless ‘points’ as well as monetary rewards and that social categorization per se does not lead to intergroup behaviour where the subjects can act directly in terms of ‘self’. Other studies on intergroup biases are reviewed to argue for the generality of social competition in intergroup situations.     

算法决策趋避的过程动机理论

算法常用于决策, 但相较于由人类做出的决策, 即便内容相同, 算法决策更容易引起个体反应的分化, 此即算法决策趋避。趋近指个体认为算法的决策比人类的更加公平、含有更少的偏见和歧视、也更能信任和接受, 回避则与之相反。算法决策趋避的过程动机理论用以解释趋避现象, 归纳了人与算法交互所经历的原初行为互动、建立类社会关系和形成身份认同三个阶段, 阐述了各阶段中认知、关系和存在三种动机引发个体的趋避反应。未来研究可着眼于人性化知觉、群际感知对算法决策趋避的影响, 并以更社会性的视角来探究算法决策趋避的逆转过程和其他可能的心理动机。     

Friendship and similarities in social-cognitive and communication abilities: Social skill bases of interpersonal attraction in childhood

Although researchers have examined how different forms of similarity (e.g., demographic similarity, attitudinal similarity) affect interpersonal attraction, little work has focused on how similarities in social-cognitive abilities and communication skills affect attraction and relationship development. The present article suggests how the similarity/attraction literature and filter theories of relationship development can be integrated with research on social skills and cognitive development to provide a framework for understanding how similarities in levels of social skills may affect attraction and friendship formation in childhood. A study was carried out assessing how similarities in levels of social-cognitive and communication skills affected interpersonal attraction and friendship choices by children. It was hypothesized that children would be (a) attracted to and (b) more likely to form friendships with peers who had social-cognitive and communication skills similar in level to their own. Participants (92 grade school children) completed a battery of tasks providing assessments of four social-cognitive and five communication skills. Sociometric procedures were used to determine interpersonal attraction and friendship patterns. Results indicated that children were attracted to peers having social skill levels similar to their own. Moreover, pairs of friends had similar levels of skills related to the expression and management of emotional states.     

Intergroup Conflict

This article outlines some of the main social‐psychological bases of intergroup conflict, illustrating the many ways in which social psychology can contribute to the study of conflict. The most convincing theoretical account is provided by perspectives that concentrate on the distinct nature of intergroup phenomena (especially social identity theory). Two of the most promising social‐psychological interventions to reduce intergroup conflict are also reviewed. The first is based on improving contact between members of previously hostile groups; the second attempts to change the structure of social categorizations (via decategorization, recategorization, and crossed categorization). This social‐psychological perspective is proposed as a key part of a necessary, multi‐disciplinary approach to intergroup conflict.     

Relation between social cohesion and team performance in soccer teams

Investigations of the influence on team performance of team composition, in terms of task-related attributes, e.g., personality traits, cognitive abilities, often assumes this relation to be mediated by the strength (intensity) of the interpersonal relations (social cohesion) among team members. However, there has been little empirical examination of how much social cohesion actually affects team outcomes. This preliminary study sought to examine this issue using soccer teams, which have been held to resemble workplace teams. Perceptions of team cohesion were collected from 198 Israeli soccer players (comprising 36 national league teams) during the week preceding their weekly games. A significant correlation was found between the perceptions of social cohesion and the results of the soccer matches, indicating a link between team social cohesion and team performance. Implications of the results, as well as the study's limitations, are discussed, and avenues for research are suggested.     

共同内群体认同对心理融合的促进效应及其机制

摘要：采用实验法从外显和内隐两个层面探讨共同内群体认同对心理融合的促进效应及其机制。实验1采用最简群体范式,通过重新范畴化操纵共同内群体认同,测量外显心理融合,结果发现,共同内群体认同显著促进了心理融合;实验2以民族群体为被试,采用GANT范式,从外显和内隐两个水平进一步探究共同内群体认同对民族心理融合的促进效应,结果发现,共同内群体认同促进了外显和内隐心理融合,感知相似性在共同内群体认同和心理融合间起中介作用。两个实验证明了共同内群体认同可以在外显和内隐两个水平促进心理融合,其促进作用是通过感知相似性实现的,也证实了GNAT范式在心理融合研究中的有效性。     

The influence of social identity on value perceptions and intention

Despite much research on consumers' brand identification, researchers remain divided regarding the conceptualization of the dimensions underlying social identity and how these dimensions impact marketing outcome variables. Further, previous studies have failed to examine the underlying psychological process driving this effect. The current research is the first to assess the importance of affective social identity as the mediator through which cognitive social identity impacts consumers' purchase intentions by ways of emotional and social value. Results show that affective social identity mediates the relationship between cognitive social identity and emotional value, where affect is the main driver in the formation of purchase intention. This study highlights the need to model cognitive and affective social identity separately and provides insight into how consumers' social identification influences their perceptions of identity‐linked products. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Categorizing at the group‐level in response to intragroup social comparisons: a self‐categorization theory integration of self‐evaluation and social identity motives

Two experiments examined how people respond to upward social comparisons in terms of the extent to which they categorize the self and the source of comparison within the same social group. Self‐evaluation maintenance theory (SEM) suggests that upward ingroup comparisons can lead to the rejection of a shared categorization, because shared categorization makes the comparison more meaningful and threatening. In contrast, social identity theory (SIT) suggests that upward ingroup comparisons can lead to the acceptance of shared categorization because a high‐performing ingroup member enhances the ingroup identity. We attempted to resolve these differing predictions using self‐categorization theory, arguing that SEM applies to contexts that make salient one's personal identity, and SIT applies to contexts that make collective identity salient. Consistent with this perspective, the level of identity activated in context moderated the effect of an upward ingroup comparison on the acceptance of shared social categorization. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.