暴力电子游戏对攻击行为及相关变量的影响

文章综述了暴力电子游戏对攻击行为及相关变量影响的测量方法和实证研究结果,分析了这种影响的心理机制和特点,文章认为对这种心理机制的理论探讨经历了四个阶段,元分析表明暴力电子游戏增加了游戏者的攻击行为、攻击认知、攻击情感、生理唤醒,最后文章指出以往研究中存在的问题和未来可能的发展方向     

暴力视频游戏中不同攻击动机对玩家攻击性的影响

分别采用词汇按键反应任务和EAST范式测查了攻击性认知的流畅性和内隐攻击性评价,旨在考察游戏中攻击动机对攻击性的影响,结果发现：暴力视频游戏的影响效应不仅与暴力内容有关,还受制于攻击动机和玩家的暴力游戏经验;且长期玩暴力游戏会使被试对暴力产生脱敏,表现为攻击性认知的流畅性低,对攻击的评价更积极。本研究表明,暴力视频游戏对个体攻击性的影响需综合考虑多种因素。     

Distinguishing Proactive and Reactive Aggression in Chinese Children

This study examined proactive and reactive aggression and their relation to psychosocial adjustment in three samples (N = 767, 368 girls, M age = 10.03) of Chinese school age children. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that a two-factor model which distinguished both proactive and reactive aggression fit the data reasonably well, and also fit the data better than a single-factor model in all three samples. The distinction between proactive and reactive aggression was found for both boys and girls. Reactive aggression was more strongly related to reciprocated friendship (negatively), peer victimization, emotion dysregulation, hostile attributions of others' behavior in ambiguous social situations, and self-reported loneliness and social anxiety (positively) than was proactive aggression. Proactive aggression was related to positive outcome expectancies and efficacy beliefs of aggression for boys but not for girls, but the significant gender difference was only found for positive outcome expectancies. The findings suggest that proactive and reactive aggression represent two distinct forms of aggression which are associated with specific adjustment outcomes in Chinese children.     

暴力游戏对青少年攻击性认知影响的文化差异：基于元分析视角

对国内外现有的暴力游戏影响青少年攻击性认知的实验研究进行元分析。总共纳入24篇研究, 产生28个独立样本, 涉及被试2449人。结果表明, 暴力游戏助长青少年攻击性认知的总效应接近中等程度; 暴力游戏对青少年攻击性认知的效应受文化类型和被试群体类型的调节, 但不受测验方法的影响, 西方文化的效应值显著大于东方文化的效应值; 其对小学生、大学生、中学生攻击性认知的影响效力依次递减, 各测验方法之间的效应值差异并不显著。     

Patterns of Aggression in Parents and their Children

In this research, we examined children's awareness of inconsistencies in messages that are meaningful for children, instructions for games. In the first experiment, kindergarten (n = 25) and second- (n = 25) and fourth-grade (n = 26) children were individually read the instructions for two games, each of which included two inconsistent statements. Chi-square analyses yielded a significant effect for grade for one game (p < .05) and a marginally significant effect for a second game (p < .10). In a second experiment, second- (n = 40), fourth- (n = 40), and sixth-grade (n = 40) children were read the instructions for two games, each of which included two statements that were inconsistent. An analysis of variance demonstrated that with an increase in grade, there was a significant increase (p < .001) in awareness that a message contained an inconsistency. The analysis also indicated that the subjects were more willing (p < .08) to question an adult than they were to question a child about an inconsistency. Moreover, a regression analysis indicated that awareness of inconsistencies in the rules for games was significantly related to memory (p < .001) and to one's ability to note inconsistencies in shorter, simpler messages (p < .001).     

短时亲社会电子游戏对小学儿童攻击行为的影响

本研究探讨小学儿童亲社会想法和积极情绪在短时亲社会电子游戏对攻击行为影响中的作用。对杭州市两所小学二、四和六年级共270名学生进行实验和问卷调查。结果表明,与暴力和中性游戏相比,亲社会电子游戏能显著降低小学儿童的攻击行为,且男生比女生更易受亲社会游戏影响,表现出更少攻击行为;亲社会想法在亲社会电子游戏对小学生攻击行为的影响中起部分中介作用,而积极情绪在亲社会电子游戏对小学生攻击行为的影响中不起作用。     

Appetitive and Defensive Arousal in Violent Video Games: Explaining Individual Differences in Attraction to and Effects of Video Games

Evidence surrounding the attraction to media violence is mixed and the effects of violent video game play on players varies across experimental participants. Differences in both may be explained by differences in experienced positive or negative arousal. This study utilizes the limited capacity model of motivated mediated message processing (LC4MP) and the motivation activation measure (MAM), which measures resting activation of the appetitive and aversive arousal systems, to explore the relationship between attraction to media violence, arousal, and aggression. In part 1, a questionnaire found that men and frequent players of violent games expected to enjoy violent games more than nonviolent games. In addition, participants whose scores on the MAM characterized them as risk takers (high scores on appetitive arousal and low scores on aversive arousal) indicated a stronger preference for violent games compared to the other three arousal types, which is in line with the LC4MP. In the experimental portion of the research, after playing a violent game, those participants characterized as risk avoidant (high on aversive arousal and low on appetitive arousal) were significantly less aggressive than all other arousal groups. Overall, results show that individual differences in the appetitive and aversive arousal systems can explain attraction to violent media. Furthermore, arousal resulting from violent video game play can be experienced as pleasant or aversive, and it is this experience of arousal that explains variations in aggressive responses to violent video games.     

电子游戏的消极影响及争议

国内外的心理学者对暴力与非暴力电子游戏的消极影响做了大量研究, 随着一般学习模型的出现, 电子游戏的积极影响研究开始兴起, 同时也产生了对电子游戏消极影响的激烈争议。通过对近年来电子游戏消极影响研究中存在的问题进行分析, 认为争议的原因主要在于相关研究未能与真实社会情境结合, 研究设计与方法存在异议, 研究范围狭窄, 研究结果相互矛盾等。将研究领域扩展至电子游戏积极影响方面, 以及大范围的纵向研究将是解决这一争议的关键和这一领域未来的研究方向。     

Longitudinal Associations between Depression and Aggression in Children and Adolescents

Due to the longstanding and detrimental effects of engaging in aggressive behaviour and of experiencing symptoms of internalizing problems in children and adolescents, there is an increasing interest in identifying the temporal sequence between these 2 problems with previous research yielding inconsistent findings. Therefore, the longitudinal links between relational aggression, physical aggression, and depression were examined across 7 years in a sample of 643 children (54 % girls) aged 10 at Time 1. Three models were compared— (1) the failure model, in which aggression predicted depression, (2) the acting out model, in which depression predicted aggression, and (3) a reciprocal model, in which both aggression and depression shared a reciprocal relation over time. Cross-lagged path analyses using structural equation modeling supported the failure model (i.e., engaging in relational and physical aggression predicts subsequent depressive symptoms). Findings were similar for boys and girls. These findings add to the literature suggesting that externalizing problems precede internalizing problems.     

On Video Games,Culture, and Therapy

The increasing presence of video games in modern culture requires psychoanalysts' attention not only to better understand the world their clients live in, but to also directly aid their patients in their difficulties. Many of the real world symptoms with which a person presents to the office may be reflected in the virtual worlds in which they play, grow, or take refuge. Understanding and inquiring into these worlds and their patients' experience of them allows analysts to help them recognize their potentials as transitional spaces. By viewing video games as virtual spaces and patients' own unique methods of using them, psychoanalysts see the game worlds as having a capacity for either harnessing or hindering various paths and aspects of development.     

Biased Self-Perceptions,Peer Rejection,and Aggression in Children

This study examined whether children’s biased self-perceptions of peer acceptance are associated in a linear or curvilinear fashion with aggression, whether associations are moderated by peer rejection status, and whether associations apply uniquely to reactive aggression. Children in the 4th through 7th grades completed a self-report measure on their social functioning (SPPC; Harter 1982), and teachers reported on children’s social functioning and aggression. Self-perceptual bias was operationalized as the standardized residual difference between children’s self-perceptions and their teachers’ perceptions of their peer acceptance. Rejected status moderated associations between biased self-perceptions and reactive aggression. Among non-rejected children, biased perceptions were not significantly associated with reactive aggression. In contrast, among peer-rejected children, reactive aggression was elevated in those who greatly underestimated as well as in those who even modestly overestimated their peer acceptance. This pattern was observed whether or not proactive aggression was statistically controlled. In contrast, biased self-perceptions were not associated with proactive aggression for rejected or nonrejected children. Implications are discussed with regard to future research and potential interventions for aggressive children.     

暴力电子游戏对攻击行为的影响及其争论

以Anderson为核心的研究者通过数十年研究发现, 暴力电子游戏是攻击行为产生的前因变量, 并且提出可以用一般攻击模型(General Aggression Model, GAM)来解释这一结论。然而, Ferguson等人的研究表明, 暴力电子游戏不是攻击行为产生的前因变量, 而是攻击行为产生的催化剂, 并提出催化剂模型(Catalyst Model, CM)来解释该结论。由于社会心理研究中, 实验研究难以严格控制, 导致研究结果大径相庭, 暴力电子游戏影响攻击行为的争论还在不断扩大。未来要加强对暴力电子游戏和攻击行为的测量, 同时还需整合一般攻击模型和催化剂模型指导实证研究, 最后从认知偏差以及社会认知神经科学视角寻求暴力电子游戏对攻击行为影响的新证据。     

Aggression and the Risk for Suicidal Behaviors among Children

Two subtypes of aggression—reactive and proactive—were examined to see how they relate to suicidal behaviors among young children admitted for acute psychiatric inpatient care. The children and their parents completed self‐report questionnaires/interviews. Regression analyses revealed that depressed girls who scored higher on reactive aggression reported more suicidal behaviors; whereas proactive aggression did not relate to suicidal behaviors for either boys or girls.     

A Brief Group Intervention Using Video Games to Teach Sportsmanship Skills to Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders

Impaired social skills represent a fundamental deficit for children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Despite the potential importance of “good sportsmanship,” this social skill has received relatively little attention in the literature. The current study utilized a Behavioral Skills Training (BST) approach to teach three sportsmanship skills (i.e., complimenting, turn taking, and being a good sport) during video game play (Wii Sports). Six children with ASD completed this study. Findings suggest BST can be used effectively to teach sportsmanship skills to children with ASD. The use of video-game technology as part of social skills intervention programs is also discussed.     

The Hand Test and Other Aggression Indicators in Emotionally Disturbed Children

The Hand Test is a projective technique yielding an Acting Out Score (AOS) which the test authors feel is useful as a predictor of aggressive, acting-out behavior. This study produced data regarding the stability of AOS, the relation of AOS to another projective device used to assess aggressive potential and the ability of AOS to predict teacher ratings of acting-out behavior among emotionally disturbed pre-adolescents. Results indicate that for this sample of Ss the AOS lacks stability as a measurement construct, does not correlate with another projective measure of aggressive potential and is not a useful predictor of acting-out behavior as rated by teachers of emotionally disturbed pre-adolescents.     

Children and Videogames: Leisure Activities,Aggression, Social Integration,and School Performance1

A survey was conducted among 346 children from the 7th and 8th grade of 7 elementary schools to examine possible positive and negative effects of playing videogames. Analyses revealed that playing videogames did not appear to take place at the expense of children's other leisure activities, social integration, and school performance. A gender difference arose: Boys spent more time playing videogames than did girls. There was no significant relationship between the amount of time children spent on videogames and aggressive behavior. A negative relationship between time spent playing videogames and prosocial behavior was found; however, this relationship did not appear in separate analyses for boys and girls. Furthermore, a positive relationship was found between time spent on videogames and a child's intelligence.     

双人合作类电子/传统游戏对幼儿同伴交往与亲社会行为的影响

近期研究表明短时接触双人电子游戏有助于促进幼儿的同伴交往与亲社会行为。本研究进一步考查了5天的双人合作类电子游戏与传统游戏干预对幼儿社会化的影响。结果显示,电子与传统游戏干预均能促进幼儿的同伴交往和亲社会行为,且两者的效果不存在差异;女孩比男孩更喜欢自己的搭档、更乐于与同伴交往和分享,游戏干预效果不存在性别差异。可见双人合作类电子/传统游戏干预对幼儿的同伴交往和亲社会行为发展都较有裨益。     

Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal Axis Functioning in Reactive and Proactive Aggression in Children

The purpose of this study was to examine the association between hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA-axis) reactivity and proactive and reactive aggression in pre-pubertal children. After a 30-min controlled base line period, 73 7-year-old children (40 males and 33 females) were randomly assigned to one of two experimental tasks designed to elicit fear (N = 33) or frustration (N = 32), or a validity check condition (N = 8). This was followed by a 60-min controlled regulation phase. A total of 17 saliva samples for cortisol analysis were collected including 12 post-stress samples at 5-min intervals. Reactive and proactive aggression levels were assessed via the teacher-completed Aggression Behavior Teacher Checklist (Dodge and Coie, J Pers Soc Psychol, 53(6), 1146–1158, 1987). Reactive aggression significantly predicted total and peak post-stress cortisol regardless of stress modality. Proactive aggression was not a predictor of any cortisol index. Examination of pure reactive, proactive, combined, or non-aggressive children indicated that reactive aggressive children had higher cortisol reactivity than proactive and non-aggressive children. Our data suggest that while an overactive HPA-axis response to stress is associated with reactive aggression, stress induced HPA-axis variability does not seem to be related to proactive aggression.     

Differential Genetic and Environmental Influences on Reactive and Proactive Aggression in Children

While significant heritability for childhood aggression has been claimed, it is not known whether there are differential genetic and environmental contributions to proactive and reactive forms of aggression in children. This study quantifies genetic and environmental contributions to these two forms of aggression in an ethnically diverse urban sample of 9–10 year old twins (N = 1219), and compares results across different informants (child self-report, mother, and teacher ratings) using the Reactive–Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ). Confirmatory factor analysis of RPQ items indicated a significant and strong fit for a two-factor proactive–reactive model which was significantly superior to a one-factor model and which replicated across gender as well as the three informant sources. Males scored significantly higher than females on both self-report reactive and proactive aggression, findings that replicated on mother and teacher versions of the RPQ. Asian–Americans scored lower than most ethnic groups on reactive aggression yet were equivalent to Caucasians on proactive aggression. African–Americans scored higher than other ethnic groups on all measures of aggression except caregiver reports. Heritable influences were found for both forms of aggression across informants, but while boys’ self-reports revealed genetic influences on proactive (50%) and reactive (38%) aggression, shared and non-shared environmental influences almost entirely accounted for girls’ self-report reactive and proactive aggression. Although genetic correlations between reactive and proactive aggression were significant across informants, there was evidence that the genetic correlation was less than unity in boys self reported aggression, indicating that genetic factors differ for proactive and reactive aggression. These findings provide the first evidence for varying genetic and environmental etiologies for reactive and proactive aggression across gender, and provide additional support for distinction between these two forms of aggression.