An operant treatment procedure for alcoholics

For many years total abstinence was regarded as the appropriate criterion for the successful treatment of alcoholism. It is suggested that given societal norms for social consumption of alcohol, plus the social reinforcers which maintain beverage alcohol ingestion, social drinking may serve as a realistic treatment goal. The efficacy of a social drinking criterion was clearly demonstrated by Bigelow et al. (1972). Chronic alcoholic in-patients were placed in a choice situation in which they earned the opportunity to participate in an ‘enriched’ environment contingent upon either moderate drinking or abstinence. Subjects overwhelmingly chose the moderate drinking alternative. Results also suggested that moderate drinking is more reinforcing than abstinence for alcoholics. Further support for the moderate drinking concept was rendered by Mills, Sobel and Schaeffer (1971) in a study which made electric shock contingent on gulping drinks, ordering straight alcoholic drinks and ordering and consuming more than three drinks. Time-out (Cohen et al., 1971), positive reinforcement (Cohen et al., 1971) and social contracting procedures (Miller, 1972) have been effectively employed to reduce drinking behavior from maladaptive to adaptive frequencies.

The present study attempts to extend treatment with a controlled drinking outcome to out-patient alcoholics     

Quantitative and qualitative assessment of university students' definitions of binge drinking

This study was designed to assess undergraduates' (N = 424) definitions of binge drinking and to evaluate whether the number of drinks they said comprise a binge varied as a function of beverage type, respondent gender, and respondent binge drinking status. When asked to designate the specific number of drinks that comprise a binge for each of four beverage types, students reported that the number of beers constituting a binge was significantly larger than the number of glasses of wine, shots of hard liquor, and servings of any combination of alcoholic beverage types; men reported that a larger number of drinks constitute a binge than did women; and those who had engaged in 3 or more binges in the past 2 weeks reported that more drinks comprise a binge than those who had binged less often. Responses to an open-ended question asking their definition of a binge revealed that students sometimes characterize a binge in terms of motivations for and unhealthy consequences of drinking, in addition to defining a binge as comprising consumption of a large amount of alcohol in a limited (though often unspecified) time period. Furthermore, students attributed their open-ended definitions of binge drinking to informal sources of information and observation of others' drinking almost as often as they did to school-based or media-based sources. This suggests that educators might look for innovative ways to use both formal and informal social networking, and video illustrations of restrained drinking, as ways to influence young people's views of binge drinking.     

Perceptions of Postdrinking Female Sexuality: Effects of Gender,Beverage Choice,and Drink Payment1

To examine the postulate that the drinking woman is viewed differently than her nondrinking counterpart, two experiments were conducted. In Study 1, 174 subjects completed an alcohol expectancy questionnaire that was modified to assess expected alcohol effects on another person: young man or young woman. The woman was perceived as being more sexual after drinking than was the man. These perceptions were also influenced by expected alcohol dosage, subjects' gender, and drinking experience. In Study 2, 176 subjects read a vignette depicting a woman having drinks with a man. To manipulate the stimulus woman's consumption and the drink payment arrangement, 8 versions of the vignette were employed: The woman was described as drinking cola or alcohol (beer, wine or whiskey) and as paying for her own drinks or allowing the man to “pick up the tab”. Subjects rated the drinking woman as significantly more aggressive, impaired, sexually available, and as significantly more likely to engage in foreplay and intercourse. Perceptions of her sexual disinhibition and likelihood of sex play were significantly enhanced if the man bought the drinks. Compared to their own perceptions of her, subjects estimated that her date would see her as significantly more disinhibited and socially skilled and as less impaired. The alcohol-drinking woman was also seen as less attractive than her cola-drinking counterpart. Practical implications regarding stereotypes about cross-gender drinking situations and theoretical implications regarding alcohol expectancy research are discussed.     

Gender expectations for alcohol use: A study of the significance of the masculine role

One hundred sixteen undergraduates assigned traditional gender-stereotyping adjectives and adjective phrases to two male and two female stimuli. Included in this set of traits were statements regarding drinking beer, drinking wine, and getting drunk. Results indicated that male stimuli were attributed stereotypically masculine traits (e.g., acts as a leader, is willing to take risks), and were attributed both beer drinking and getting drunk significantly more often than the female stimuli. By contrast, female stimuli were attributed stereotypically feminine traits (e.g., dependent, sensitive) and were attributed wine drinking significantly more often than the male stimuli. These data provide direct evidence that expectations regarding beer drinking and getting drunk are aspects of the traditional male gender role. The social and mental health implications of the findings are discussed.     

Another Round for the Brewers: Television Ads and Children's Alcohol Expectancies1

In an experimental study of how beer commercials affect alcohol expectancies, 92 fifth graders watched 40 television ads that included either five beer commercials, five soft-drink commercials, or five beer commercials plus two antidrinking messages. Afterwards, as an unrelated task, they completed the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire-Adolescent Form (AEQ-A; Christiansen, Goldman, & Inn, 1982). Exposure to different commercials produced no differences in drinking expectancies. The experiment was repeated on 74 eighth graders with similar null results; however, eighth-grade girls more strongly believed (p <.02) that alcohol leads to deteriorated cognitive and behavioral function. In a comparison of fifth and eighth graders from the same school, eighth graders had significantly more positive scores on three AEQ-A scales that tapped social/emotional expectancies. The failure of beer commercials to create positive alcohol expectancies is consistent with limited and null findings of previous investigations. Research to date does not support a ban on alcohol advertising.     

Male alcohol‐related aggression as a function of type of drink

The present study tested the so‐called type‐of‐drink effect on aggression, that is, the idea that moderate acute alcohol intoxication elicits more aggression when the alcohol is drunk in the form of spirits than in the form of beer or wine. A computerized version of the Taylor “aggression machine” was used. Spirits‐drinking subjects drank 1.0 ml of 100% alcohol per kg body weight. To compensate for the lower alcohol concentration, beer‐ and wine‐drinking subjects drank 20% more. No significant differences were found between drinkers of different beverages in terms of blood alcohol levels. Results indicated that spirits elicited more direct physical aggression than either beer or wine. Three different possible explanations for this finding were discussed. Aggr. Behav. 25:401–408, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Using a modified Stroop task to implicitly discern the cognitive organization of alcohol expectancies

Alcohol expectancies have been statistically modeled as memory networks that influence future consumption. To test the organization of expectancies suggested by these models, a modified Stroop color-naming task incorporated expectancy words associated in past research with heavy and light drinking. Light and heavy drinkers ink-named expectancy targets after being cued with an alcohol beverage word or a nonalcohol beverage word. Consistent with predictions derived from statistical models, heavy drinkers displayed significant interference when arousing expectancy words had been primed by an alcohol beverage word, whereas light drinkers displayed significant interference when sedating expectancy targets had been so primed. These results reinforce the idea that mediation o falcohol use by expectancies may be implicit as well as explicit.     

A beverage-specific measure of expectancies for malt liquor: development and initial testing

Malt liquor (ML) is a unique, high alcohol content beverage marketed to encourage heavy drinking. We developed the Malt Liquor Expectancy Questionnaire (MLEQ), a beverage-specific measure of alcohol expectancies, and examined its association with typical weekly ML use, typical weekly alcohol use, and alcohol problems. Forty positive and 40 negative expectancy items were administered to a sample of 639 young adults who regularly consumed ML. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses led to the development of the 30-item MLEQ. The MLEQ consists of two positive (i.e., Social Facilitation and Enjoyment, Enhanced Sexuality) and two negative factors (i.e., Aggression and Negative Consequences; Impairment and Physical Symptoms) that possess good internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and convergent validity. The psychometrically sound MLEQ contributes to the limited research on beverage-specific expectancies and heavy drinking.     

‘Beauty is in the eye of the beer holder’: People who think they are drunk also think they are attractive

This research examines the role of alcohol consumption on self‐perceived attractiveness. Study 1, carried out in a barroom (N= 19), showed that the more alcoholic drinks customers consumed, the more attractive they thought they were. In Study 2, 94 non‐student participants in a bogus taste‐test study were given either an alcoholic beverage (target BAL [blood alcohol level]= 0.10 g/100 ml) or a non‐alcoholic beverage, with half of each group believing they had consumed alcohol and half believing they had not (balanced placebo design). After consuming beverages, they delivered a speech and rated how attractive, bright, original, and funny they thought they were. The speeches were videotaped and rated by 22 independent judges. Results showed that participants who thought they had consumed alcohol gave themselves more positive self‐evaluations. However, ratings from independent judges showed that this boost in self‐evaluation was unrelated to actual performance.     

A multiple mediation model of trait worry and hazardous drinking among treatment-seeking smokers: the roles of coping and conformity drinking motives

ABSTRACT

Alcohol use is associated with poorer smoking cessation-related outcomes, and smokers with elevated levels of worry experience greater smoking cessation problems. Yet, little is known about the explanatory mechanisms that may underlie the relationship between trait worry and hazardous drinking among smokers. Therefore, this study explored the explanatory roles of coping and conformity drinking motives in the relationship between trait worry and hazardous drinking outcomes including alcohol consumption, alcohol problems, maximum number of drinks, and the number of prior alcohol quit attempts among treatment-seeking smokers. Participants included 377 treatment-seeking smokers who consumed at least one alcoholic drink in the last year (48% female; 86.2% Caucasian; M _age = 34.83 years, SD = 13.38). Results showed a significant indirect effect of trait worry through coping-related drinking motives in relation to alcohol consumption, alcohol problems, maximum number of drinks, and number of prior drinking quit attempts. These findings were evident after controlling for gender, cigarette dependence, and current psychopathology. These findings suggest that coping drinking motives are one mechanism that may explain the relation between trait worry and hazardous drinking outcomes among treatment-seeking smokers.     

NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS OF BEER DRINKING AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS

We observed the beer drinking behavior of 308 university students in several bar and party settings. The following relationships were found: (a) males drinking beer in bars consumed 0.92 oz per min; (b) females drank less beer than males, and stayed in a bar for a longer time period; (c) patrons drank significantly more beer when drinking in groups and when purchasing beer in pitchers versus cups or bottles; and (d) intervals between party arrival and first drink and between party departure and last drink varied inversely with blood alcohol concentration. We discuss these findings with regard to developing interventions to prevent alcohol-impaired driving.     

Comparison of social time-out and activity time-out procedures in suppressing ethanol self-administration in alcoholics

The experiments compared the potencies of three different contingent time-out procedures for suppressing drinking in alcoholics, and also compared two different experimental methodologies for conducting such studies. In a residential research ward setting fourteen volunteer chronic alcoholics were given daily access to 17 alcoholic drinks provided that a minimum of 40 min elapsed between receiving successive drinks. Each drink contained 1 oz 95-proof ethanol in orange juice. During the baseline condition subjects were free to drink with no behavioral restrictions. However during the time-out conditions, specific behavioral restrictions were imposed on the subjects for the 40-min period following receipt of each drink. The results showed that Social time-out suppressed drinking to 71 per cent of baseline conditions, while Activity time-out and the combined Social and Activity time-out suppressed intake to 36 and 24 per cent, respectively. The study also demonstrated that similar experimental results were obtained when subjects were continuously exposed to the experimental conditions for a number of consecutive days. or intermittently exposed to different conditions in a mixed order over successive days.     

Influence of Positive and Negative Film Portrayals of Drinking on Older Adolescents' Alcohol Outcome Expectancies

College students (76 females. 32 males) were shown videotaped clips from popular films depicting either (a) desirable outcomes of drinking distilled spirits, (b) undesirable outcomes of drinking distilled spirits, or (c) no portrayals of distilled spirits. After presenting the film clips, we assessed their alcohol outcome expectancies and intentions to drink alcoholic beverages in the next week Participants in the positive film condition endorsed more positive expectancies than did participants in the control condition, and participants in the positive and negative film conditions endorsed more negative expectancies than did the participants in the control condition. Intentions to drink distilled spirits in the next week did not differ by film condition.     

Instructed versus pharmacological effects of alcohol in alcoholics and social drinkers

Twelve alcoholics and 12 social drinkers were studied in an experiment where instructions about alcohol or placebo were orthogonally crossed with administration of alcohol or placebo in a Balanced Placebo Design. Three subjects were simultaneously observed while watching soccer games on the TV together and having free access to a mixed drink, which in the alcohol conditions contained 150ml of 80% proof vodka. The assessment procedure included several aspects of drinking behavior, behavioral observations during the session, psychiatric ratings and nurse observations before and after each session, ratings for craving, self-reported state anxiety and physiological changes (heart rate and blood pressure). In general, the results showed the alcoholic's behavior to be controlled by instruction-induced expectancies rather than by the actual beverage given, whereas the social drinkers showed tendencies in the opposite direction. The implications of these results for the traditional disease conception of alcoholism and for learning theory approaches are discussed.     

父母和同伴因素对青少年饮酒行为的影响

环境是影响青少年饮酒行为的重要因素之一。本研究以南京市初一、初二、高一、高二共995个中学生为被试,考察父母和同伴因素对青少年饮酒行为的影响以及相对影响力。要求青少年自我报告他们自己、父母和同伴的饮酒行为和态度以及父母监控、父母教养方式情况。结果表明:(1)青少年的饮酒行为较为普遍,70%左右的青少年曾饮过啤酒或葡萄酒,25%左右的青少年曾饮过白酒。约10%的青少年经常饮啤酒和葡萄酒,2%的青少年经常饮白酒;(2)父/母饮酒行为和态度、父母监控、父母教养方式、同伴饮酒人数和态度与青少年的饮酒行为显著相关;(3)Amos结果表明,父母饮酒行为和态度对青少年饮酒行为有直接的预测作用,父母饮酒行为和态度还通过同伴饮酒人数和态度间接地预测青少年的饮酒行为。同时,父母饮酒行为和态度对青少年饮酒行为的影响力大于同伴饮酒行为和态度的影响力。     

Ratings of pleasantness and intensity for beverages served in containers congruent and incongruent with expectancy

Pleasantness and intensity ratings of beverages served in containers congruent and incongruent with expectancy were assessed. Past research has shown that the violation of food expectancies, e.g., color, taste, temperature, leads to more negative evaluations of food. Thus, it was hypothesized that beverages sampled from a container incongruent with expectancy, e.g., beer from a coffee cup, would be rated less favorably than the same beverage sampled from a container congruent with expectancy, e.g., beer from a beer bottle. 61 participants evaluated three beverages (beer, orange juice, and hot chocolate) in three containers (bottle, glass, and cup) using 11-point rating scales for pleasantness and intensity. Analysis indicated beverages were rated as significantly more pleasant in containers congruent with expectancy, as well as rated more intense when presented in bottles. These results further address the effects of violating expectations on producing negative hedonic evaluations.     

The DRD4 VNTR polymorphism moderates craving after alcohol consumption.

Recent research has suggested that alterations in mesolimbic dopamine neurotransmission are central to the development and expression of craving for alcohol. Because the D4 dopamine receptor gene, variable numbers of tandem repeats (DRD4 VNTR) polymorphism putatively expresses functional differences in dopamine receptors, the present study tested whether this polymorphism influences the effects of a priming dose of alcohol on craving. Participants consumed 3 alcoholic drinks or 3 control drinks and completed measures of craving after each drink. Participants who were homozygous or heterozygous for the 7 (or longer) repeat allele were classified as DRD4 L, whereas the other participants were classified as DRD4 S. Results suggested that DRD4 L participants demonstrated significantly higher craving after consumption of alcohol as compared with the control beverage.     

Alcohol Expectancies and Workplace Drinking1

The relationship between alcohol expectancies and work-related drinking was investigated in a survey of 984 employees from a large unionized manufacturing plant. Respondents were asked about their drinking at work, just prior to work, and in other contexts. Alcohol expectancies were measured by asking how likely or unlikely it was that work-related drinking would lead to 13 personal consequences. The items for this scale were derived from ethnographic interviews and observations in the plant and from a review of the workplace literature. Exploratory factor analysis indicated that the expectancy items formed two scales representing positive and negative consequences. These scales predicted work-related drinking in a simultaneous equations path analysis, even when general drinking practices and background variables were controlled. The analysis also indicated that workers who were younger, Caucasian, hourly, on evening or night shifts, and frequent or heavy drinkers outside of work may be at risk for work-related drinking because of their alcohol expectancies.     

Expectancies, Setting, Age, and Beverage Choice as Predictors of Sexual Behaviors in Hypothetical Dating Situations

Brief vignettes depicting heterosexual dates were used to examine how date location (bar/restaurant), age (21/35), female character's beverage choice (alcohol/soda), and respondents' gender interacted to determine participants' estimations of the likelihood of sexual behaviors between daters. Participants were randomly assigned to read vignettes that combined these factors in a factorial design. Younger, alcohol-drinking females in a bar date were perceived as more likely to engage in sex than were nondrinking females at a restaurant. For older daters, neither factor was relevant. The drinking female was perceived as more likely to initiate sex than was the nondrinker. Alcohol use by the male target was not related to perceived initiation likelihood. Participants with stronger alcohol expectancies gave higher estimates of likelihood of sex.     

A randomized trial of a brief primary-care-based intervention for reducing at-risk drinking practices.

This randomized trial evaluated an intervention for reducing at-risk drinking practices in a sample of 307 patients. Eligible drinking patterns included chronic drinking (> or = 2 drinks per day in the past month), binge drinking (> or = 5 drinks per occasion at least twice in the past month), and drinking and driving (driving after > 2 drinks in the past month). Members of the intervention group received a message from their physician during their regularly scheduled visit, a self-help manual, written personalized feedback, and up to 3 telephone counseling calls. Dropout was significantly higher in the intervention than control group.