Disarmament Decisions as Social Dilemmas1

The individual deciding on a nuclear weapons production policy is faced with a dilemma in which a choice must be made to support one of several conflicting defense policies. In order to investigate the social-psychological variables that are related to armament policy decision making, a telephone survey was conducted in the City of St. Louis, Missouri. Adult subjects (N= 110) responded to questions concerned with cognitive, attitudinal, and emotional responses to nuclear arms. Participants were also asked to choose a weapons production policy for the United States under conditions of continued and decreased Soviet nuclear arms production. Results indicated that respondents decisions about nuclear weapons production were related to their support for deterrence, the availability of their nuclear-related images, their emotional response to nuclear war, their attributions of responsibility for the prevention of nuclear war, and their political party affiliation. Distinctions between antinuclear decision-makers and pronuclear decision-makers are discussed.     

Naturalism, Reduction and Normativity: Pressing from Below

David Papineau's model of scientific reduction, contrary to his intent, appears to enable a naturalist realist account of the primitive normativity involved in a biological adaptation's being "for" this or that (say the eye's being for seeing). By disabling the crucial anti-naturalist arguments against any such reduction, his model would support a cogni-tivist semantics for normative claims like "The heart is for pumping blood, and defective if it doesn't." No moral claim would follow, certainly. Nonetheless, by thus "pressing from below" we may learn something about moral normativity. For instance, suppose non-cognitivists like Mackie are right that the semantics of normative claims should be "unified": if the semantics of moral claims is non-cognitivist, so too is that of all normative claims. Then, assuming that a naturalist reduction does yield a sound cognitivist account of the primitive normativity, it would follow that our semantics of moral claims is cognitivist as well.     

The Sports Path Not Taken: Pearl Diving Heritage and Cosmopolitanism from Below

ABSTRACT

In contrast to camel and horse racing as well as falconry, pearl diving has not been transformed into a popular heritage sport in the countries of the Arab Gulf. One reason for this striking disinterest is that the actual practice of pearling was undertaken by impoverished and exploited workers, and this is no longer compatible with the new prevailing, self-assertive ‘tribal modern’ of the Arab Gulf.     

Implicit learning: Below the subjective threshold

In this review, we consider three possible criteria by which knowledge might be regarded as implicit or inaccessible: It might be implicit only in the sense that it is difficult to articulate freely, or it might be implicit according to either an objective threshold or a subjective threshold. We evaluate evidence for these criteria in relation to artificial grammar learning, the control of complex systems, and sequence learning, respectively. We argue that the convincing evidence is not yet in, but construing the implicit nature of implicit learning in terms of a subjective threshold is most likely to prove fruitful for future research. Furthermore, the subjective threshold criterion may demarcate qualitatively different types of knowledge. We argue that (1) implicit, rather than explicit, knowledge is often relatively inflexible in transfer to different domains, (2) implicit, rather than explicit, learning occurs when attention is focused on specific items and not underlying rules, and (3) implicit learning and the resulting knowledge are often relatively robust.     

Toddlers from Low-Income Families Have Below Normal Mental, Motor, and Behavior Scores on the Revised Bayley Scales

This study examined scores on the original and revised Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID-II) for 87 infants and toddlers from low-income families. Infants' scores were consistent with scores from the normative sample. In contrast, toddlers obtained mental, motor, and behavioral scores that were lower than scores from the normative sample. Mental, motor, and behavioral scores from the BSID-II were correlated for toddlers, but not for infants, suggesting that the interrelationship between behavior and development increases with age. These findings are consistent with longitudinal studies demonstrating a decline in developmental performance among toddlers from low-income families. They demonstrate that the vulnerability of toddlers can not be explained by outdated test norms. The findings may be partially explained by canalization theory in which early development is guided by species-specific self-righting processes that protect infants from all but the most devastating environmental influences or by a lack of enriching caregiving practices for toddlers in low-income families. With the restandardization of the BSID-II, more toddlers will qualify for early intervention. Recommendations are provided for prevention programs to reduce the vulnerability demonstrated among low-income toddlers.     

The View from Way Below: Inter‐Species Encounter,Membranes, and the Reality of Christ

Viewing modern life from the perspective and world of those whose lives are treated as expendable commodities in our current economic systems—humans and creatures of every other species—creates, Bonhoeffer asserts, the most reliable hermeneutical standpoint for seeing and living in reality. This essay attempts to fashion in broad strokes a Christian theology of creaturely re‐engagement: learning to live again “way below,” in literal and metaphoric touch with reality. I assert that Bonhoeffer's theology of I/Thou encounter as the means of humans’ ethical formation has the potential to ground a broader theology of inter‐species encounter as well.     

Globalizing Canadian Education from Below: A Case Study of Transnational Immigrant Entrepreneurship Between Seoul, Korea and Vancouver Canada

Witnessing the rise of the international education industry for the last two decades, this study examines the role of Korean immigrant entrepreneurs who play an important role in promoting Canadian education in the global market. Relying on close social and cultural linkages between Korea and Canada, the ways in which Korean immigrant entrepreneurs operate their transnational business demonstrate how globalization actually works in practice. Exploring immigrant participation at the heart of the knowledge economy (education), we also ask if the entrepreneurial opportunities that are being cultivated by Korean-immigrants represent an innovative shift from traditional and low-level ethnic niche economies toward more lucrative opportunities.     

Direct Risk Aversion: Evidence From Risky Prospects Valued Below Their Worst Outcome

ABSTRACT— Why would people pay more for a $50 gift certificate than for the opportunity to receive a gift certificate worth either $50 or $100, with equal probability? This article examines three possible mechanisms for this recently documented uncertainty effect (UE): First, awareness of the better outcome may devalue the worse one. Second, the UE may have arisen in the original demonstration of this effect because participants misunderstood the instructions. Third, the UE may be due to direct risk aversion, that is, actual distaste for uncertainty. In Experiment 1 , the UE was observed even though participants in the certainty condition were also aware of the better outcome; this result eliminates the first explanation. Experiment 2 shows that most participants understand the instructions used in the original study and that the UE is not caused by the few who do not. Overall, the experiments demonstrate that the UE is robust, large (prospects are valued at 65% of the value of the worse outcome), and widespread (at least 62% of participants exhibit it).     

A Quanta of Light and the Artistic Process: As Above,So Below

This article seeks to demonstrate that the creation of art is an expression of a fundamental yet elusive truth. It is not a process that draws solely on absolute fictions, but rather, it is a reflection of certain unconscious archetypes and themes that are inherent to experience.     

Longitudinal Effects of Reading Intervention on Below Grade Level,Preadolescent, Title I Students

Some claim that good and poor readers continue their trajectories despite intervention. This quasi-experimental study examined whether the READ 180 program helps general education, below-grade-level, Title I preadolescent readers improve. Participants included 82 students, grades 4–8, in public Title I elementary and middle schools. Results showed that below grade-level readers improved after intervention and attained grade-level status. Differences remained between participants and their nonintervention peers during follow-up testing. However, when examining growth trajectories, a reversal in performance between the two groups was manifested. The below-grade-level students’ mean growth between years 1 and 2 after intervention was actually greater than that of their on-grade-level peers with no intervention. The performance trajectory narrowed over time after successful intervention.     

The Regulatory Easy Street: Self-Regulation Below the Self-Control Threshold Does not Consume Regulatory Resources

We present and test a theory in which self-control is distinguished from broader acts of self-regulation when it is both effortful and conscious. In two studies, we examined whether acts of behavioral management that do not require effort are exempt from resource depletion. In Study 1, we found that a self-regulation task only reduced subsequent self-control for participants who had previously indicated that completing the task would require effort. In Study 2, we found that participants who completed a self-regulation task for two minutes did not evidence the subsequent impairment in self-control evident for participants who had completed the task for four or more minutes. Our results support the notion that self-regulation without effort falls below the self-control threshold and has different downstream consequences than self-control.     

Significance of a Preponderance of Human Movement Responses on the Rorschach in Children Below Age Ten

Abstract

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Szondi, L. Experimental Diagnostics of Drives (Translated by Gertrude Aull). New York: Grune and Stratton, 1952, 220 pp. Reviewed by Henry P. David     

When Words are not Enough: Psychotherapy with Clients Who are Living Below the Poverty Level

The present article describes six strategies found useful when working with depressed clients who are struggling with severe financial limitations. First, it is important to help clients maintain an attitude of hope for a better future, so they remain as positive yet realistic about their current options and future goals. Second, empathy is considered to be a central component in all psychotherapy sessions, helping therapists to understand their clients’ life experiences and ongoing struggles. Third, clients can learn to develop more adaptive perspectives about life, family, and friends, trying to focus on the positive events they have experienced and the supportive bonds they have developed. Fourth, clients can develop new specific coping skills that may help them to manage the problems they encounter. Fifth, many clients can better utilize the social support that is often available, starting to ask family members and friends for assistance and support when help is needed. Sixth, an interdisciplinary treatment team is often optimal when the treatment plan integrates the potential benefits derived from psychotherapy, medications, and social service agencies. An effective psychotherapist respects the limits of psychology while consulting with colleagues from other health care professions. These six strategies can help guide therapists when working with clients who are struggling with persistent depression in the face of adversity.