THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FORMAL MENTORING PROGRAM CHARACTERISTICS AND PERCEIVED PROGRAM EFFECTIVENESS

Formal mentoring programs continue to gain popularity within organizations despite limited empirical research regarding how these programs should be designed to achieve maximum effectiveness. This study examined design features of formal mentoring programs and perceived program effectiveness from both mentor and protégé perspectives. Mentor commitment and program understanding were examined as mediators. Substantial support for the proposed path analytic model was found. These results help begin to bridge the gap between science and practice concerning the design of formal mentoring programs.     

Mentor functions and outcomes: a comparison of men and women in formal and informal mentoring relationships.

The authors examined the effects of the type of mentoring relationship and the gender composition of the relationship on mentoring functions and career outcomes reported by 352 female and 257 male protégés. Protégés of informal mentors viewed their mentors as more effective and received greater compensation than protégés of formal mentors. Protégés with informal mentors also received more career outcomes than nonmentored individuals, but no significant differences were found between nonmentored and formally mentored individuals. The gender composition of the relationship affected mentoring functions and outcomes, and protégé gender interacted with the type of relationship to affect mentoring functions.     

A dyadic examination of the role of relationship characteristics and age on relationship satisfaction in a formal mentoring programme

Research was conducted to test ideas derived from Wanberg, Welsh, and Hezlett's (2003) dynamic process model of formal mentoring to examine (1) the role of respect and communication in mentorship relationship satisfaction, and (2) whether the age of the mentor or the protégé would impact those relationship qualities. The sample was comprised of 117 matched mentor–protégé pairs from an organization's formal mentoring programme. We received survey data from both partners and used the Actor–Partner Interdependence Model to examine individual and dyadic effects. Data suggest that protégés' respect for the mentor and communication quality, as perceived by both partners, were independent predictors of mentorship relationship satisfaction. Protégés rated their relationships as more satisfying than did their mentors. Hypotheses regarding age differences in relational qualities were not supported. We suggest that researchers continue to examine formal relationships at the dyadic level, and that practitioners designing formal mentoring programmes consider interventions to enhance communication and respect.     

Formal mentoring programs: The relationship of program design and support to mentors’ perceptions of benefits and costs

This study investigates the relationship of formal mentoring program design elements (i.e., voluntary participation, input to matching, and effectiveness of training) and management support to the benefits and costs perceived by formal mentors. Data were collected from 97 formal mentors from a Midwestern financial institution. Multiple regressions were performed controlling for time as a mentor in the program, hours spent mentoring, and number of protégés. Voluntary mentor participation was positively related to perceiving rewarding experiences and negatively related to being more trouble than it was worth. Input to the matching process was negatively related to nepotism, and perceptions of training effectiveness were positively related to generativity. Finally, perceived management support for the program was positively related to rewarding experience and recognition, and negatively related to generativity and bad reflection. Three supplemental group interviews were conducted to further explore some of the survey findings. Directions for future research and implications for formal workplace mentoring programs as well as mentoring programs in cross-disciplinary contexts are discussed.     

Mentor and protégé predictors and outcomes of mentoring in a formal mentoring program

This study examines the predictors and outcomes of mentoring received by participants of a 12-month formal mentoring program. Based on relationship theory, we examined how the personality of the individuals in the mentoring dyad, their perceived similarity, and mentor perceived support for mentoring contributed to relationship outcomes. The study includes data from both mentors and protégés at the program launch, midway through the program, and at program close. Mentor proactivity was related to more career and psychosocial mentoring; protégé’s perceptions of similarity to the mentor was related to more psychosocial mentoring. More mentoring was related to positive protégé and mentor outcomes, including improved protégé career clarity over the duration of the study.     

Formal Mentoring in Military Academies

We examined the relationship between mentoring functions and protégé outcomes in formal mentoring relationships in military academies. A total of 424 (listed as 424 under Method) freshmen and 659 senior cadets from six different military academies participated in the survey. Results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses suggest that career mentoring was positively related to mentor satisfaction and participants' provision of career mentoring to their protégés. Surprisingly, career mentoring was negatively related to freshmen's commitment to a military career. We found that psychosocial mentoring was positively related to mentor satisfaction and participants' commitment to a military career, leadership competency, and provision of psychosocial mentoring to their protégés. Furthermore, psychological mentoring was negatively related to stress. We discuss these findings and their implications for mentoring research and practices in the military.     

Impact of a College Student Academic Mentoring Program on Perceived Parental and Teacher Educational Involvement

This article examines the hypothesis that academic mentoring of college students improves perceived parental and teacher educational involvement. College students were randomly assigned to a 1‐year academic mentoring program (protégés, n = 150) or a control group (n = 167) and completed questionnaires before, during, and after the intervention. Protégés perceived greater levels of parent and teacher educational involvement than did participants from the control group. However, the impact of the mentoring program on perceived parental involvement was found only among students who reported a secure relationship with their parents. Additional analyses suggest that some of these improvements were related to quality of the working alliance between mentors and protégés and to supportive behaviors exhibited by mentors during the intervention.     

What keeps people in mentoring relationships when bad things happen? A field study from the protégé's perspective

This study examines the association between negative mentoring experiences and protégé intentions to leave the mentoring relationship. The role of perceived mentoring alternatives and fear of mentor retaliation was also examined as moderators of the relationship between negative mentoring experiences and intentions to leave. Results indicate that several types of negative mentoring experiences predict intentions to leave the mentoring relationship. In addition, three moderation effects were found. The results are discussed in terms of enhancing our understanding of mentoring relationships in the workplace.     

What keeps people in mentoring relationships when bad things happen? A field study from the protégé's perspective

This study examines the association between negative mentoring experiences and protégé intentions to leave the mentoring relationship. The role of perceived mentoring alternatives and fear of mentor retaliation was also examined as moderators of the relationship between negative mentoring experiences and intentions to leave. Results indicate that several types of negative mentoring experiences predict intentions to leave the mentoring relationship. In addition, three moderation effects were found. The results are discussed in terms of enhancing our understanding of mentoring relationships in the workplace.     

Mentoring Relationships and Programs for Youth

ABSTRACT— Mentoring is one of the most popular social interventions in American society, with an estimated three million youth in formal one-to-one relationships. Studies have revealed significant associations between youth involvement in mentoring relationships and positive developmental outcomes. These associations are modest, however, and depend on several intervening processes. Centrally important is the formation of close, enduring connections between mentors and youth that foster positive developmental change. Effects of mentoring programs likewise typically have been small in magnitude, but they increase systematically with the use of program practices likely to support relationship development. Gaps between research and practice are evident both in the indiscriminate use of the term mentoring in the prevention field and in a focus on the growth and efficiency of mentoring programs at the expense of quality. Continued expansion of effective mentoring will require a better alignment of research and practice.     

Factors Related to Mentor Reports of Mentoring Functions Provided: Gender and Relational Characteristics

In this study we examined the relationship between mentor gender, protégé gender, mentorship characteristics (e.g., mentorship type, mentorship duration, mentor experience), and mentoring functions provided as reported by mentors. Drawing on research regarding diversified mentorships and interpersonal relationships, we proposed that mentoring effectiveness would vary as a function of the gender of the mentorship participants and the characteristics of the relationship. As hypothesized, several interesting gender differences emerged from the data. Male mentors reported providing more career mentoring to their protégés, whereas female mentors reported providing more psychosocial mentoring. Contrary to expectations, mentors in informal mentorships did not report providing more mentoring than did mentors in formal mentorships. The findings demonstrate the importance of examining mentoring from the perspective of the mentor.     

An Examination of the Role of Mentees’ Social Skills and Relationship Quality in a School-Based Mentoring Program

Research on youth mentoring highlights the importance of the relationship quality between mentor and mentee; mentoring results in more positive outcomes when the mentee perceives the relationship as satisfying and trustworthy. Research on relationship quality shows that social skills are important for constructing new relationships. However, whereas improved social skills are often one of the main goals of youth mentoring, little is known about the importance of social skills for relationship quality in youth mentoring relations. In this study, we examined whether mentee's pre-intervention social skills were related to mentor–mentee relationship quality as perceived by the mentee, and in turn, if relationship quality was associated with post-intervention social skills. We additionally examined possible gender and age differences in these associations. Data were used from a two-wave study that assessed relationship quality and social skills before and after one semester of mentoring of 390 secondary school students in a school-based mentoring program. Results indicated that relationship quality was positively associated with post-intervention social skills. However, only for young mentees pre-intervention social skills were associated with better relationship quality. Moreover, only for young mentees, relationship quality mediated the association between pre- and post-intervention social skills.     

FORMAL AND INFORMAL MENTORSHIPS: A COMPARISON ON MENTORING FUNCTIONS AND CONTRAST WITH NONMENTORED COUNTERPARTS

Research on mentorships has suffered from fragmentation of key issues; specifically, type of mentoring relationship, functions served by the mentor, and outcomes of the mentoring relationship. A field study was conducted comparing 212 protégés who were involved in informally developed mentorships, 53 protégés involved in formal mentor-ship programs, and 284 individuals who did not have mentors. Individuals in informal and formal mentorships were compared along two mentoring dimensions: psychosocial and career-related functions. All groups were compared on three outcome measures: organizational socialization, job satisfaction, and salary. Results indicated protégés in informal mentorships reported more career-related support from their mentors and higher salaries than protégés in formal mentorships. For all outcome variables, protégés in informal mentorships also reported more favorable outcomes than nonmentored individuals. However, outcomes from protégés in formal mentorships were generally not significant from the other two groups. Implications for mentorship practices and research are discussed.     

What affects willingness to mentor in the future? An investigation of attachment styles and mentoring experiences

This study examined the influence of attachment styles and mentoring experiences on willingness to mentor in the future in a formal mentoring program in China. For both mentors and protégés, avoidance and anxiety dimensions of attachment styles and their interaction had a significant influence on willingness to mentor in the future. Mentoring experiences explained unique variance in willingness to mentor beyond attachment styles. Crossover analysis of matched mentor–protégé pairs showed that mentoring functions fully mediated the mentor avoidance – protégé willingness to mentor relationship. The interaction between protégé avoidance and anxiety was directly related to mentor willingness to mentor in the future. Directions for research and implications for managerial practice are provided.     

Career benefits associated with mentoring for protégeé: a meta-analysis

Meta-analysis was used to review and synthesize existing empirical research concerning the career benefits associated with mentoring for the protégé. Both objective (e.g., compensation) and subjective (e.g., career satisfaction) career outcomes were examined. Comparisons of mentored versus nonmemored groups were included, along with relationships between mentoring provided and outcomes. The findings were generally supportive of the benefits associated with mentoring, but effect sizes associated with objective outcomes were small. There was also some indication that the outcomes studied differed in the magnitude of their relationship with the type of mentoring provided (i.e. career or psychosocial).     

Mentoring and Peer-led Interventions to Improve Quality of Life Outcomes among Adolescents with Chronic Illnesses

Advancing adolescent medicine has resulted in increased survival rates for life-limiting health conditions that are now considered chronic conditions. Due to the increased rates of chronic illnesses, the broad outcomes of community-based programs for adolescents with these illnesses need to be examined. Therefore, the present study seeks to examine community-based, mentoring and peer-led programs that have a social support component to increase quality of life outcomes for adolescents with chronic illnesses. A comprehensive literature review was conducted to identify articles that included a social support component to increase quality of life outcomes for adolescents with chronic illnesses. Six articles were included in the narrative analysis. Programs were divided into two types of interventions: mentoring/coaching (n?=?3) and peer-led interventions (n?=?3). A summary of each study was developed and main themes from each intervention were identified by the research team. This review found six community-based peer-led and mentoring interventions that incorporated a social support component to improve the quality of life of adolescents with chronic illnesses. Critical components for a peer-led or mentoring intervention should include social support components such as health coaching and mentoring by peers or adults. Since the nature of chronic illnesses is lengthy in duration, social support research translated into practice may offer adolescents who have any of these illnesses a means to improve their psychosocial outcomes. The interventions outlined in this present review have yielded promising results. Recommendations for future studies are included.     

Mentoring and Psychological Contract Breach

Purpose

Mentoring and psychological contracts are related and important organizationally based social exchange relationships. Research indicates that social support from internal mentors might buffer the negative effects of psychological contract breach (PCB), but less is known about the possible negative influence that mentors might have on psychological contracts. This study investigates protégés' perceptions of their mentors?? failure to fulfill mentoring obligations and protégés?? perceptions of PCB. Because either the formality of the mentoring relationship or the supervisory status of the mentor might serve as additional signals of the mentor??s status as an organizational agent, and, therefore, exacerbate the negative association between mentoring breach and PCB, both are investigated as potential moderating variables.

Design/Methodology/Approach

A sample of 144 protégés from various occupations completed a questionnaire assessing mentoring breach, PCB, job satisfaction and organizational commitment.

Findings

Results indicate the relations between mentoring breach and the outcome variables of interest were mediated by PCB, and that the relation between mentoring breach and PCB is stronger in supervisory mentoring relationships. A similar result was expected, but not confirmed, for formal mentoring relationships.

Implications

The current study provides evidence that the actions (or inactions) of mentors contribute to PCB and related negative outcomes. Such knowledge might encourage organizations to provide training to potential mentors in managing the mentoring relationship to minimize the probability of mentoring breach.

Originality Value

The current study is the first to examine the potential negative effect that mentoring relationships might have on protégé psychological contracts.     

Antecedents and Consequences of Perceived Barriers to Obtaining Mentoring: A Longitudinal Investigation

Mentoring is prototypically intended to advance the personal and professional growth of new employees at work. Although meta‐analyses have found that receiving mentoring can result in beneficial outcomes for employees' career success, employees may perceive barriers to obtaining a mentor. The present research examined antecedents and consequences to perceived barriers to mentoring in business and administrative jobs in a field study over 2 years. Socioeconomic origin, positive affectivity, organizational development culture, and previous mentoring experience predicted perceived barriers to mentoring after 2 years. New employees' perceived barriers to mentoring at Time 1 predicted changes in mentoring received and income after 2 years. Implications of this study, including a proposed mentoring training program, and directions for future research are discussed.     

The effectiveness of mentoring programs in corporate settings: A meta-analytical review of the literature

Many studies over the last 20-25 years have examined the benefits of mentoring for the protégé and the organization. A review of these studies being published revealed that there is not only a lack of studies utilizing or reporting comparison group information but also a general lack of experimental research about mentoring. This quantitative meta-analytic review provides a critical analysis of the effectiveness of mentoring, with an emphasis on research designs that compared career outcomes of mentored individuals to non-mentored individuals. The overall mean effect size of mentoring was significant, indicating that mentoring does improve career outcomes for individuals. Individual career outcomes were analyzed and reported. Informal mentoring produced a larger and more significant effect on career outcomes than formal mentoring. There is a need for more research comparing protégés and non-protégés to determine if it is the receipt of mentoring or individual characteristics that leads to career success.     

Protégé and mentor self-disclosure: Levels and outcomes within formal mentoring dyads in a corporate context

This study examined the role of self-disclosure within protégé/mentor dyads in formal mentoring partnerships within a corporate context as a means of learning more about specific relationship processes that may enhance the positive outcomes of mentoring. While both protégés and mentors self-disclosed in their relationships, protégés disclosed at a higher level than mentors. Protégé self-disclosure, but not mentor self-disclosure, was related to protégé outcomes including mentoring received, relationship satisfaction, and positive influence of mentoring. The study contributes to a mentoring literature that has become more interested in examining mentoring relationship micro-processes from both the protégé and mentor perspective.