Psychology and the Bible: Three Worlds of the Text

While biblical scholars have all too often remained skeptical, preachers and pastoral counselors have always known, consciously or not, that the Bible is a richly psychological document. Until recently, psychological biblical criticism has been one of the hidden avenues of biblical interpretation, made more inaccessible due to the lack of organization and coherence within the literature. Recent shifts in the discipline of biblical studies, along with the increasing influence of psychological perspectives on the culture in general have made psychological approaches to the Bible more visible. It is useful to identify three dimensions or levels of the biblical text: the world behind the text, the world of the text and the world in front of the text. Such a division can help to identify the goals of a particular psychological approach and the appropriateness of its aims.     

Collective trauma and post-traumatic symptoms in the biblical narrative of ancient Israel

According to the biblical books of Exodus and Numbers, the early Israelites suffered recurrent plagues and other events which comprise significant collective trauma coinciding with their physical and spiritual birth as a people. These ancient narratives reflect a fledgling people's coping with high levels of transitional stress, multiple crises, and significant losses attendant upon slavery and genocide. Inspection of the text also reveals signs of collective post-traumatic reactions among the Israelites. Relevant psychological perspectives on stress, loss, and trauma can therefore usefully illuminate specific biblical events. Trauma may well be implicated in the etiology of certain stringent biblical commandments, including “the ban” and related severe restrictions against Israelite intermarriage. The Bible may also contain insights bearing upon social action aimed at preventing or coping with epidemics and for overcoming psychological trauma, of relevance to a modern positive community psychology.     

Human Timeline: A Spatial‐Kinesthetic Exercise in Biblical History

The Human Timeline invites students to physically re‐create biblical history. Each student holds a card that denotes an event randomly selected from the biblical timeline. They then arrange themselves chronologically to learn the correct flow of biblical history. Because of the movement involved and the arbitrary layout of the cards among their classmates, learners engage their spatial‐kinesthetic intelligences through this activity. The exercise proves popular among students who identify themselves as “visual” learners, and ultimately serves the biblical studies classroom by reinforcing biblical history as a necessary framework for understanding the biblical text.     

FUNDAMENTALISM IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Drawing from social historical studies and critical feminist perspectives on psychological method and report writing, I analyze the content of the fourth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 1994) as if it were a biblical text. I focus on the correspondence between the espoused intention of sensitivity toward participants and the codes of investigative conduct made explicit and implicit in the manual. Specifically, I examine definitions of research, research roles, ethical standards, writing style, and gender issues. I then discuss the manual's function as a fundamentalist bible in relation to psychologists' culture, including socialization of psychology students and the production of research articles. I conclude with recommendations for investigative and compositional alternatives.     

The Bible and psychology, an interdisciplinary pilgrimage

This article discusses the semantic issues regarding such terminology as the integration and interface of the discreet disciplines of Psychology, Theology, and Biblical Studies. It then defines a set of principles relevant to the interdisciplinary enterprise of relating these sciences. It suggests ideas for the illumination of psychological models with theological and biblical perspectives as well as for the employment of psychology as a new perspective from which to see the biblical text, offering new depths of understanding. This project is illustrated and illumined by observations upon the efforts of the Christian Association for Psychological Studies to wrestle with these issues, particularly through its main published organ, The Journal of Psychology and Christianity.This inevitably unfolds some of the story of the author's fifteen year pilgrimage as Editor of JPC and Executive Director of CAPS and endeavor to relate the sciences of Psychology and Theology, psychological experience and spirituality, emotional health and biblical faith. It is the first claim of this paper that the relationship of Psychology and the Bible is less a matter of integration of the two into each other's framework, scientifically or intuitively, and more a matter of that kind of interface between them which affords the mutual illumination of the two phenomena, knowing that these are two sources of insight and information in which truth is revealed about us, and therefore, presumably, about God who created, sustains, and heals us. It is the second claim of this paper that biblical interpretation, as text analysis, cultural understanding, literary-historical appreciation, and theology formation is an enterprise upon which all the tools of human inquiry must be brought to bear in order to distill from the text the full range of cognitive and affective import which it carries and offers the inquirer. Among these took are historical criticism, literary criticism, form criticism, redaction criticism, textual criticism proper, and many others. Lately, some scholars such as Howard Clark Kee have attempted to bring sociological perspectives to biblical studies. Gerd Theissen has written on the psychological aspects of Pauline thought. This paper argues that the science and models of Psychology can be employed as a lens through which to see any text in fresh ways with productive results in new dimensions of insight.J. Harold Ellens isExecutive Director Emeritus of the Christian Association for Psychological Studies, Founding Editor and Editor in Chief Emeritus of the Journal of Psychology and Christianity, a retired Presbyterian theologian and pastor, and a licensed psychotherapist. He holds graduate degrees of MDiv from Calvin Theological Seminary, a ThM from Princeton Theological Seminary, and a PhD from Wayne State University.     

For Better or Worse: Fundamentalists' Attitudes Toward Outgroups as a Function of Exposure to Authoritative Religious Texts

Fundamentalism not only predicts prejudice toward outgroups but also prosociality toward proximal targets and ingroups. Taking things a step further, we hypothesized that because fundamentalists tend to show submission to religious authority, their attitudes toward unknown targets and outgroups may vary significantly depending on the nature of the authoritative religious texts to which they are exposed. In three studies using hypothetical scenarios, the association between fundamentalism and prosocial attitudes (a) became negative after exposure to a violent biblical text (Study 1; unknown targets), (b) reversed from negative to positive after reading a prosocial biblical text (Study 2; negligent targets), and (c) became negative or positive following a violent versus prosocial biblical text (Study 3; atheist target). Additional results confirmed the uniqueness of fundamentalism compared to general religiosity, quest orientation, and authoritarianism, regarding such dependency upon religious authority. Findings also support the mediating roles of reported submissiveness to religious teachings and perceived symbolic threat.     

To the Ends of the Earth? Minority Biblical Criticism in Motion – They were All Together in One Place? Toward Minority Biblical Criticism – Edited by Randall C. Bailey,Tat‐siong Benny Liew,and Fernando F. Segovia

What is minority biblical criticism? Why do all biblical scholars need to engage with it? Do race and ethnicity, sex and gender, and political and socio‐economic concerns matter in interpreting the Bible? Leading minority scholars of the Bible from African American, Asian American, and Latino/a American communities come together to answer these questions and break grounds for further cooperation and development of this much‐needed hermeneutical strategy. The authors in this volume willfully disobey the rules of objectivity and universality and shatter the pretension of those who claim that one's context has no bearing on their interpretation of the text. They push the boundaries of the discipline of biblical studies and take the interdisciplinary turn in order to create a space in which minority biblical criticism can stand on its own.     

God's Choice: The Total World of a Fundamentalist Christian School

Professors who teach educational psychology at the member colleges and universities of the Association of Christian Schools International were surveyed concerning their approach to teaching educational psychology. Sixty-two surveys were returned from the 169 schools. The survey indicated that 96.7% of the responding schools offer a major in education and require their education majors to take a course in educational psychology. A majority of the respondents were very interested in approaching the topic from a biblical perspective and desired more resources to do so. An outline is presented of the challenges that must be overcome before a learning theory that is both scientific and biblical can be developed and empirically verified.     

“I Did Not Wash My Feet with that Woman”: Using Dramatic Performance to Teach Biblical Studies

The student dramatic performance is an effective way for undergraduates to learn biblical studies. In this article I will give an example of a dramatic performance assignment that I developed over a number of courses and used most recently and most successfully in an undergraduate course in the Hebrew Bible at a small liberal arts college in the Midwest/Appalachian region in 2008. Drawing on my own experience as a teacher, as well as on the ideas of philosophers, educators, playwrights, and biblical scholars, I will explain why such performances are effective teaching tools. I will also give guidance on how to use dramatic performances effectively. I intend to show that the success of this assignment depends on, and ultimately validates, two basic trusts: trust in the intellectual and creative capacity of students, as well as trust in the wealth of meaning in the biblical text.     

Humanistic psychology and religion: Steps toward reconciliation

Disagreements have surfaced recently among rank- and-file mental health practitioners regarding the relationship between psychology and religion. To mediate these differences and misunderstandings, a study is presented here of the basic concepts of humanistic psychology vis-á-vis major elements of Judeo-Christian biblical theology. An assumption is posited that all forms of knowledge share a fundamental language basis and symbolic system regarding the ultimate questions and meanings of existence. From this presupposition similarities and congruities among specific elements of humanistic psychology and biblical theology are discussed, providing a basis for more intensive empathic dialogue and cooperative research. A bridge is established to enable therapists to understand better their clients' religious conflicts and/or emotional stresses caused by religious factors.     

A Treasure Hidden in a Field: Katherine Sonderegger on Scripture

This paper considers Katherine Sonderegger's view of Scripture. In volume 2 of her Systematic Theology Sonderegger suggests a ‘dogmatic reading’ that overcomes the impasse of both a too historicist and a too theologically narrow view of the biblical text. As evidenced in her innovative reading of Isaiah 53, Sonderegger's engagement with Scripture is both thoroughly traditional and a novel approach to theologically engaging the biblical text.     

Towards a biblical psychoanalysis: a second look at the first book

Freud's materialistic treatment of religion has discouraged and stigmatised inquiries concerning the potential theoretical and clinical utility that biblical stories could offer to the ongoing development of psychoanalysis. As a result, the historical development of psychoanalysis has been disproportionally influenced by the Hellenic ideals that influenced the German humanistic pedagogical value of Bildung, to which Freud was an ardent disciple. However, since it has consistently been recognised that Western culture has been mutually influenced by both biblical and Hellenistic attitudes, it may be warranted to extend this dialectal interplay into the realm of individual psychology, in the process delimiting a space whereby psychoanalysis and biblical thought can constructively coexist. In this vein, prototypical myths from the Greek and biblical traditions can reliably be situated on a psycho-mythological continuum, with Greek myths representing a less integrated level of ego development and biblical narratives reflecting an unambivalent, higher level of psychological organisation. The Greek mythology of Oedipus and the biblical Binding of Isaac has been chosen to illustrate this dynamic.     

HEBREW WISDOM AND PSYCHOTHEOLOGICAL DIALOGUE

Abstract. When understood as a potential resolution for the epistemological impasse between psychology and religion, Hebrew wisdom presents a model for dialogue. Noting that wisdom exhibits a special interest in human dispositions and behavior, the authors compare Viktor Frankl's logotherapy and Adlerian psychology with Proverbs and uncover a biblical, empirical approach to psychology which indirectly incorporates the religious dimension.     

从新约的历史逻辑审视汉语神学与圣经神学

本文从新约的历史逻辑审视汉语神学,指出新约的历史逻辑研究,虽然和圣经神学在研究内容上(信仰观方面)有某种程度的关联,但它在研究形式上由于还致力于新约的语言观、时间观、正义观的阐明,所以,它远远超出了一般以讨论圣经文本的信仰教义为使命的圣经神学,应当属于人文-社会学的新约学范畴.其人文性表现在新约文本的语言观、时间观的阐释中;其社会学的特征体现在新约文本的正义观的论说中.在研究方法上,新约的历史逻辑在根本上区别于圣经神学.汉语神学的描述性的定义为:以圣经基督论为启示的中心、以汉语为母语的基督徒的信仰为经验的根据、以汉语思想文化传统为阐释的背景、以历代教会及其神学思想(希腊化、拉丁化、欧美)的学典为言说的参照、以汉语学者的基督经验的宗教学研究为基础的神学.其次,从新约的历史逻辑审视圣经神学,其结果至少应当包括关于耶稣基督事件本身的言说、关于耶稣基督事件的人言的言说(初期教会如何看待耶稣基督事件留下的人言)、关于耶稣基督事件的历史事实的清理.如何具体地把这三者揭示出来,构成新约的历史逻辑为方法论的汉语圣经神学的内容.     

Learning Hebrew by Writing in English

This essay explores a midrange teaching and learning issue regarding the teaching of biblical languages and one strategy for addressing the issue. Seminary students do not yield a great enough return in exchange for the investment they are required to make in learning biblical languages. Students invest great time and money, but they do not learn to use the biblical languages to think critically about the Bible. This essay argues that a fruitful strategy for addressing this midrange issue is to require students to write in English about the Hebrew language. This strategy fosters students' ability to think critically about the biblical text. It also fosters their ability to use their budding knowledge of a biblical language to engage questions of meaning and issues of interpretation.     

Beyond Biblical Literacy: Developing Readerly Readers in Teaching Biblical Studies

Theological education in biblical studies often has focused on information, but it needs to emphasize developing skills and sensibilities in students that will produce confident, imaginative, and attentive readers. To form readers with a disciplined imagination—what we are calling “readerly readers”—educators need to inculcate skills and sensibilities that will enable students to interact with the text as a living voice, rather than as an object to be mastered, and to allow the text to provoke difficult, profound, or long‐term questions.     

Challenging the Objectivist Paradigm: Teaching Biblical Theology with J.R.R. Tolkien,C.S. Lewis,and Guillermo del Toro

The dissimilarity that exists between the historical and cultural situation of North American college students and the world described by the biblical authors poses a problem for theological and religious education. While the biblical authors tell fantastic stories of miracle and magic, the scientific and technological paradigm prevalent in western culture emphasizes the gathering of objective facts in the name of efficiency and pragmatism. Theological education tends to respond to this situation by embracing either a program of historical criticism or a form of Biblicism, both of which reinforce an objectivist approach to education. What is needed in theological education is an approach that “re‐mythologizes” the Bible, enabling students to hear the theological message of the text addressed to their cultural and historical situation. One way this approach can be encouraged is through the teaching of the biblical text in conversation with the contemporary stories found in popular culture.     

Jung,Individuation, and Moral Relativity in Qohelet 7:16–17

Qohelet’s warning in chapter 7:16 ‘not to be too righteous’ has commonly been interpreted by biblical scholars in ways that acquit the author of teaching immorality. This article approaches the text from a psychological critical perspective, bringing it into dialogue with the psychological maturation process of individuation in Jungian psychology. The confrontation with the shadow, made up of reprehensible qualities residing in the unconscious that a person wishes to deny, forms the prologue to this process. Projection or repression of these primitive instincts can lead to various problems, such as stagnation and neurosis. Raising the shadowy, primitive, and archaic content of the unconscious to consciousness and integrating it with the ego, however, leads to a mysterious union of opposites and a new personality, a ‘self’ that transcends consciousness.     

Obedience and Disobedience/Rebellion in Biblical Versus Greek Narratives: Toward a Biblical Psychology

Contemporary psychology and psychiatry have been explicitly or implicitly based on an ancient Greek view of life. Even pastoral psychologists have been influenced by this view. The present article calls for a paradigm shift toward a biblical psychology. Illustrations of these contrasting worldviews are presented around the issue of obedience versus disobedience/rebellion. Three narratives are compared in this regard: 1) creation stories, 2) “flood” stories, and 3) father-son stories. Freud’s dependence on a Greek worldview is discussed, as is his disregard of biblical narratives. Pastoral psychologists, take heart! It is time to level the playing field.