The effects of videotape modeling on staff acquisition of functional analysis methodology

Lectures and two types of video modeling were compared to determine their relative effectiveness in training 3 staff members to conduct functional analysis sessions. Video modeling that contained a larger number of therapist exemplars resulted in mastery-level performance eight of the nine times it was introduced, whereas neither lectures nor partial video modeling produced significant improvements in performance. Results demonstrated that video modeling provided an effective training strategy but only when a wide range of exemplars of potential therapist behaviors were depicted in the videotape.     

The impact of functional analysis methodology on treatment choice for self-injurious and aggressive behavior.

Self-injurious behavior (SIB) and aggression have been the concern of researchers because of the serious impact these behaviors have on individuals' lives. Despite the plethora of research on the treatment of SIB and aggressive behavior, the reported findings have been inconsistent regarding the effectiveness of reinforcement-based versus punishment-based procedures. We conducted a literature review to determine whether a trend could be detected in researchers' selection of reinforcement-based procedures versus punishment-based procedures, particularly since the introduction of functional analysis to behavioral assessment. The data are consistent with predictions made in the past regarding the potential impact of functional analysis methodology. Specifically, the findings indicate that, once maintaining variables for problem behavior are identified, experimenters tend to choose reinforcement-based procedures rather than punishment-based procedures as treatment for both SIB and aggressive behavior. Results indicated an increased interest in studies on the treatment of SIB and aggressive behavior, particularly since 1988.     

The effects of competing reinforcement schedules on the acquisition of functional communication

The initial efficacy of functional communication training (FCT) was evaluated when problem behavior continued to produce intermittent reinforcement. Results for 2 of 3 participants showed that FCT was most effective when problem behavior was also exposed to extinction, response blocking, or both.     

Functional analysis methodology: Some closing comments

Functional analysis methodologies have emerged as powerful tools in research on the assessment and treatment of severe behavior disorders. Although the defining feature of these approaches is the systematic identification of environmental determinants of behavior, research methodology has varied widely with respect to the arrangements used to demonstrate experimental control as well as the types of variables subject to analysis. This commentary summarizes methodological and conceptual issues that have been raised in current research and offers some suggestions for their resolution.     

Training educators to implement functional analyses

The present study examined the use of an instructional workshop for training educators to conduct functional analyses. Results indicated that 2 of 3 participants met the accuracy criterion following group training, whereas 1 participant required direct verbal feedback. During generalization probes, one participant accurately conducted sessions with a student in her classroom.     

Functional analysis and treatment of social-communicative behavior of adolescents with developmental disabilities.

This investigation used functional analyses to identify the social variables that maintained the inappropriate social-communicative behaviors of 2 adolescent students with mental retardation. Analyses were performed in the students' classrooms with the assistance of peers and teachers. The results of these assessments were used to identify appropriate, functionally equivalent behaviors that the students were taught to self-monitor. Findings showed substantial decreases in inappropriate social responding and increases in the use of appropriate social skills.     

The Rational Teacher: Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy in Teacher Education

Rational Emotive Behavior Theory and Therapy (REBT; Ellis, 1973) is a form of humanistic psychology that helps individuals live happier, more productive, more self-actualizing and more creative existences. Under what has been called Rational Emotive Education (REE), some (see, e.g., Bernard, 2001, 2000, 1990, 1984; Bernard & Ellis, 1983; DeVoge, 1983; DiGiuseppe, 1983; DiGiuseppe & Bernard, 1990; Ellis, 1975, 1974, 1973, 1972, & 1971; Knaus, 1977; Knaus & Bokor, 1975; Knaus & Eyman 1974; Knaus & McKeever, 1977; Vernon, 1998, 1997, 1996, 1994, 1993, 1990, & 1989) have applied REBT in various educational settings. Having been successful in clinical settings and in reducing both undesirable student behavior and teachers' stress, additional innovative applications of REBT are now being explored and used. This paper describes the incorporation of REBT into yet another unexplored setting within REE: teacher education. Undergraduate Education majors, taking a psychological foundations course and prior to their Student Teaching Practicum, learned REBT principles and methodology and applied them in both learning and teaching contexts. The learning context included situations the Undergraduate Education majors encountered in their college lives. The teaching context included situations they encountered while participating in their preschool field placement. The application of REBT to both contexts allowed the Education majors to address their personal and professional development, including their effectiveness as teachers in training.     

Providing noncontingent,alternative, functional reinforcers during delays following functional communication training

Functional Communication Training (FCT) involves arranging extinction for problem behavior and reinforcement for a more desirable, functionally equivalent, communicative response (FCR). Although effective under ideal arrangements, the introduction of delays to reinforcement following the FCR can result in increased problem behavior. Austin and Tiger (2015) showed that for individuals whose problem behavior was sensitive to multiple sources of reinforcement, providing access to alternative, functional reinforcers during delays mitigated this increase in problem behavior during delay fading. The current study replicated the procedures of Austin and Tiger with 2 individuals displaying multiply controlled problem behavior. Providing alternative functional reinforcers reduced problem behavior during 10-min delays for both participants without requiring delay fading.     

Further extensions of precision medicine to behavior analysis: A demonstration using functional communication training

The potential applicability of concepts and methods of the paradigm of precision medicine to the field of applied behavior analysis is only beginning to be explored. Both precision medicine and applied behavior analysis seek to understand and classify clinical problems through identification of their causal pathways. Both aim to develop treatments directly targeting those causal pathways, which also requires an understanding of the mechanisms by which treatments produce change (treatment-action pathways). In the current study, we extend the data-analytic methods and concepts described by Hagopian et al. (2018) toward the identification of variables that predict response to functional communication training (FCT). We discuss emerging conceptual issues, including the importance of distinguishing predictive behavioral markers from predictor variables based on their purported involvement in the causal or treatment-action pathways. Making these discriminations is a complex undertaking that requires knowledge of these mechanisms and how they interact.     

Comparison of single and multiple functional communication training responses for the treatment of problem behavior

Two functional communication training (FCT) conditions without extinction were compared to treat the problem behavior of a child with developmental disabilities. The individual was taught to emit a single FCT response to obtain one of six items delivered in a randomized order or multiple FCT responses that specified the exact item. Results showed that only the FCT-multiple condition reduced problem behavior and maintained alternative mands.     

Assessment of mand selection for functional communication training packages

We evaluated the effects of training novel and existing mands during functional communication training (FCT) to decrease problem behavior for 2 children. A functional analysis (Phase 1) identified mands for FCT. Phase 2 used distinct stimulus conditions to train novel and existing mands. Phase 3 evaluated allocation of responding within a concurrent-schedules design. When reinforcement for either mand was concurrently available, the children used existing mands more than novel mands, but higher levels of problem behavior occurred with existing mands.     

The significance and future of functional analysis methodologies

Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, and Richman (1982) presented the first comprehensive and standardized methodology for identifying operant functions of aberrant behavior. This essay discusses the significance functional analysis has had for applied behavior analysis. The methodology has lessened the field's reliance on default technologies and promoted analysis of environment-behavior interactions maintaining target responses as the basis for selecting treatments. It has also contributed to the integration of basic and applied research. Future directions for this research are suggested.     

A Survey of Behavior Analysis and Behavioral Consultation Courses in School Psychology: Implications for Training School Psychologists

All 216 doctoral and specialist level school psychology training programs were mailed a seven question survey to determine how much behavioral consultation and behavior analysis course work school psychology students are offered. One hundred and twenty-eight surveys were returned, yielding a return rate of 58.26%. The results indicated that almost all programs offer didactic courses in consultation (98.79%) and behavior analysis/behavior modification (91.52%). The percentage of practicum devoted to behavioral consultation and behavior analysis/modification was considerably less (about 25% for each) than other subject areas. The results are discussed within the context of training needed to meet the needs of practitioners in the areas of behavioral consultation and behavior analysis/behavior modification.     

Interpreting functional analysis outcomes using automated nonparametric statistical analysis

Current methods employed to interpret functional analysis data include visual analysis and post-hoc visual inspection (PHVI). However, these methods may be biased by dataset complexity, hand calculations, and rater experience. We examined whether an automated approach using nonparametric rank-based statistics could increase the accuracy and efficiency of functional analysis data interpretation. We applied Automated Nonparametric Statistical Analysis (ANSA) to a sample of 65 published functional analyses for which additional experimental evidence was available to verify behavior function. Results showed that exact behavior function agreement between ANSA and the publications authors was 83.1%, exact agreement between ANSA and PHVI was 75.4%, and exact agreement across all 3 methods was 64.6%. These preliminary findings suggest that ANSA has the potential to support the data interpretation process. A web application that incorporates the calculations and rules utilized by ANSA is accessible at https://ansa.shinyapps.io/ansa/     

Infant sign training and functional analysis

We taught manual signs to typically developing infants using a reversal design and caregiver-nominated stimuli. We delivered the stimuli on a time-based schedule during baseline. During the intervention, we used progressive prompting and reinforcement, described by Thompson et al. (2004, 2007), to establish mands. Following sign training, we conducted functional analyses and verified that the signs functioned as mands. These results provide preliminary validation for the verbal behavior functional analysis methodology and further evidence of the functional independence of verbal operants.     

Minimum Competency Testing of the Handicapped: A Review of Legal Challenges

The article reviews recent litigation involving minimum competency testing of the handicapped with regard to both constitutional and statutory challenges. Court decisions indicate that handicapped students will be required to pass state mandated competency tests as long as adequate notice of the test as a graduation requirement is provided. The importance of the Individualized Education Program, as well as implications for education and counseling of the handicapped, are discussed.     

A comparison of isolated and synthesized contingencies in functional analyses

Recently, researchers have compared the utility of isolated versus synthesized contingencies in functional analysis (FA) methodology (e.g., Fisher et al., 2016; Slaton et al., 2017). A limitation of these studies is that there were other differences across FA methodologies (e.g., design, contingency) that did not allow for isolation of the influence of isolated versus synthesized contingencies. Therefore, the current study compared outcomes of FAs that involved isolated versus synthesized contingencies for problem behavior of 5 children while controlling for these other differences across FAs (Experiment 1). Next, the current study compared the effects of interventions based on the functions identified in the isolated and synthesized contingencies for each participant (Experiment 2). Results indicated isolated contingency FAs produced differentiated responding for 1 or both functions for all 5 participants, and there were little to no differences between treatments informed by isolated and synthesized contingency FAs.     

Interview‐informed functional analyses: A comparison of synthesized and isolated components

Hanley, Jin, Vanselow, and Hanratty (2014) described a functional analysis (FA) format that relied on a synthesis of multiple contingencies described by caregivers during open‐ended interviews. These interview‐informed synthesized contingency analyses (IISCA) provided effective baselines from which to develop socially validated treatments, but the synthesis precluded a precise understanding of individual contingencies influencing problem behavior. We conducted IISCAs and standard FAs (Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, & Richman, 1982/1994) for nine children with autism to evaluate the likelihood of differentiation given a number of synthesized versus isolated variables. The IISCA was differentiated for all. The standard FA was differentiated for four; this number increased to six when we included precursors in the standard FA. We then compared treatments based on sets of differentiated analyses for four children. Treatment based on the IISCA was effective for all four; treatments based on the standard FA were effective for two. The role of synthesis in analysis is discussed.     

Classroom application of a trial-based functional analysis

We evaluated a trial-based approach to conducting functional analyses in classroom settings. Ten students referred for problem behavior were exposed to a series of assessment trials, which were interspersed among classroom activities throughout the day. Results of these trial-based functional analyses were compared to those of more traditional functional analyses. Outcomes of both assessments showed correspondence in 6 of the 10 cases and partial correspondence in a 7th case. Results of the standard functional analysis suggested reasons for obtained differences in 2 cases of noncorrespondence, which were verified when portions of the trial-based functional analyses were modified and repeated. These results indicate that a trial-based functional analysis may be a viable assessment method when resources needed to conduct a standard functional analysis are unavailable. Implications for classroom-based assessment methodologies and future directions for research are discussed.