Parenting of children with attention-defecit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): the role of parental ADHD symptomatology

OBJECTIVE: The present study examined the relation between parental ADHD symptomatology and parent-child behavior among 46 mothers and 26 fathers of ADHD children. RESULTS: Fathers' self-reports of inattention and impulsivity were strongly associated with self-reports of lax parenting both before and after parent training, and with self-reports of overreactivity after parent training. Fathers' impulsivity was also associated with more arguing during audiotaped observations of parent-child interactions prior to parent training. Mothers' self-reports of inattention were modestly associated with self-reports of laxness before and after parent training. Prior to parent training, there were non-linear relations between mothers' inattention and observations of mother-child behavior, with mothers who reported moderate levels of inattention engaging in the most negative parent-child interactions. After parent training, these relations were linear, with the mothers who reported the most inattention engaging in the most negative parent-child interactions. These results were weakened but were generally still significant when parental depression and alcohol use were controlled.     

Cognitive-behavioral depression treatment for mothers of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

An adaptation of the Coping With Depression Course (CWDC) was evaluated in mothers of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a population at risk for depression. Mothers were randomly assigned to receive the CWDC either immediately following an intensive summer treatment program targeting their child's behavior or after a wait-list period. Measures of maternal functioning, cognitions about child behavior, parent-child and marital relationship quality, child behavior, and ADHD-related family impairment were obtained at pretreatment, posttreatment, and 5-month follow-up. The CWDC resulted in improvements in maternal depressive symptoms, maternal self-esteem, child-related cognitions, and family impairment at posttreatment compared to a wait-list control group that were maintained at follow-up. Findings suggest that the CWDC is a promising intervention for mothers of children with ADHD, particularly those with current depressive symptomatology.     

分离遗传与环境对儿童发展的影响：介绍一个新颖的研究方法

本文介绍一个可以用于研究遗传与环境互动的新颖方法。此研究收集了上千个4~10岁儿童的数据。这些儿童的出生都借助于不同的辅助受孕技术（Assisted Reproductive Technologies）,包括试管婴儿、精子捐赠、卵子捐赠、胚胎捐赠及代孕技术。本项目通过妇科（助孕）医院收集被试的行为数据,包括家庭互动、养育方式、父母婚姻质量、家庭成员的心理健康及经济状况等。本文选择性地介绍一些分析的结果,以彰显这种设计在分离遗传和产前产后环境对儿童发展的贡献。首先,我们比较了“助孕”儿童与“自然孕”儿童在父母冲突、父母对子女敌意以及儿童抑郁症状之间关系的异同。其次,我们比较了这两组儿童在父母抑郁症状、家庭关系质量以及儿童抑郁症状之间关系的异同。再次,本文介绍了这一可分离遗传与环境因素的研究设计。最后,我们讨论了这一设计对发展心理病干预及预防的意义     

Mediators of aggression among young adult offspring of depressed mothers

The current article explores the connection between maternal depression and offspring aggression during the transition to adulthood, expanding the scope of prior research on this topic. Both family-level factors (including parent-child relationship quality and maternal romantic relationship quality) and youth factors (including depression history and social functioning in midadolescence) were tested as potential mediators in a longitudinal community sample of 710 youth at ages 15 and 20. The results suggest that maternal depression confers a risk for higher levels of aggressive behavior by offspring at age 20. Structural equation models suggested that the association between maternal depression and youth aggression is fully mediated by youth history of depression by midadolescence, even when accounting for the stability of aggression between ages 15 and 20. Parent-child relationship quality, youth social functioning, and maternal relationship quality were not unique mediators of this association. Limitations and implications are discussed.     

父母冲突对儿童青少年抑郁情绪的影响：有调节的中介模型

采用方便取样法选取山西、河南两省的2823名中小学生为被试,使用问卷法考察父母冲突与儿童青少年抑郁情绪之间的关系及机制。结果表明：（1）父母冲突、亲子关系、自尊均与抑郁呈显著相关;（2）父母冲突可以正向预测抑郁,亲子关系在其中起部分中介作用;（3）父母冲突影响抑郁的有调节的中介模型成立,其中自尊在前半段和后半段路径中均起调节作用,但作用有所不同。     

The Mediating Role of Rumination in the Relation Between Quality of Attachment Relations and Depressive Symptoms in Non-Clinical Adolescents

This study examined associations between indices of the quality of attachment relationships of adolescents with parents and peers, rumination, and symptoms of depression. More specifically, a mediation model was investigated in which rumination was hypothesized to mediate the relation between quality of attachment relations and symptoms of depression. A total of 455 high school students completed a battery of questionnaires, including quality of attachment relations, rumination, and depression. Results showed that most indices of quality of attachment relations were significantly associated with rumination and symptoms of depression. When examining the relative contribution of these variables in explaining variance in depression symptoms, trust in parents, communication with peers, and alienation from peers accounted for a significant portion of the variance in depression scores. Finally, the relation between communication with peers and depressive symptoms was fully mediated by rumination, whereas partial mediation was found for the relations between parental trust and depressive symptoms, and between alienation from peers and depressive symptoms. Implications of the findings may be that the treatment of depression in adolescence should consist of both cognitive interventions aimed at targeting ruminative thinking as well as a focus on interpersonal relationships of the adolescent with parents and peers.     

Parental Anxiety and Child Symptomatology: An Examinzation of Additive and Interactive Effects of Parent Psychopathology

The current study examined relations between parent anxiety and child anxiety, depression, and externalizing symptoms. In addition, the study tested the additive and interactive effects of parent anxiety with parent depression and externalizing symptoms in relation to child symptoms. Forty-eight parents with anxiety disorders and 49 parents without any psychiatric disorder participated with one of their children (ages 6 to 14 years; 46.4% male; 75.8% Caucasian). Parent anxiety was related to both child anxiety and depression, but not child externalizing symptoms. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that only parent externalizing symptoms had additive effects, beyond parent anxiety symptoms, in relation to child anxiety symptoms. Further, parent anxiety symptoms moderated the relationship between parent and child externalizing symptoms, such that the strength of this relationship was reduced in the presence of high levels of parent anxiety symptoms. Results of this study illuminate the role of parent comorbidity in understanding relations between parent and child symptoms.     

Erratum to: Parental Anxiety and Child Symptomatology: An Examination of Additive and Interactive Effects of Parent Psychopathology

The current study examined relations between parent anxiety and child anxiety, depression, and externalizing symptoms. In addition, the study tested the additive and interactive effects of parent anxiety with parent depression and externalizing symptoms in relation to child symptoms. Forty-eight parents with anxiety disorders and 49 parents without any psychiatric disorder participated with one of their children (ages 6 to 14 years; 46.4% male; 75.8% Caucasian). Parent anxiety was related to both child anxiety and depression, but not child externalizing symptoms. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that only parent externalizing symptoms had additive effects, beyond parent anxiety symptoms, in relation to child anxiety symptoms. Further, parent anxiety symptoms moderated the relationship between parent and child externalizing symptoms, such that the strength of this relationship was reduced in the presence of high levels of parent anxiety symptoms. Results of this study illuminate the role of parent comorbidity in understanding relations between parent and child symptoms.     

Maternal ADHD: Parent-Child Interactions and Relations With Child Disruptive Behavior

This study examined how ADHD symptoms in mothers of children with ADHD relate to their behavior during parent-child interactions and to their children's disruptive behavior. Findings indicated that mothers’ retrospective self-ratings of ADHD symptoms were related to their present negativity during parent-led play. Mothers’ self-ratings of current inattentive symptoms were related to their impatience during child-led play. Maternal ADHD symptoms were also related to their ratings of their children's ADHD and oppositional-defiant behaviors. Identifying relations between maternal psychopathology, such as ADHD symptomatology, and behaviors during parent-child interactions may yield clues to additional parent behavioral changes that would enhance treatment outcomes for young children with ADHD.     

亲子支持与老年人抑郁情绪的关系:安全感和情绪表达的作用

采用问卷调查法,以362名老年人为研究对象,考察亲子支持与老年人抑郁情绪的关系,同时探讨安全感的中介作用以及情绪表达的调节作用。结果发现：（1）亲子支持显著负向预测老年人抑郁情绪;（2）安全感在亲子支持与老年人抑郁情绪的关系中起部分中介作用;（3）情绪表达调节亲子支持与老年人安全感的关系,相较于高情绪表达能力老年人,低情绪表达能力老年人的安全感更易受亲子支持的影响。本研究的发现表明,增强老年人的安全感以及情绪表达能力有助于减缓老年期抑郁情绪和维护老年人心理健康。     

Putting the pieces together: Maternal depression,maternal behavior,and toddler helplessness

This study assessed relations between maternal depression, maternal behavior, and helplessness in toddlers. Helplessness was assessed behaviorally in 25‐ and 32‐month‐old toddlers while the toddlers were engaged with an impossible task. Maternal behavior (warmth, negativity, control, intrusiveness) was assessed during a mother–child teaching task when toddlers were 18 and 25 months of age. Mothers who reported more depressive symptoms on the BDI had 32‐month‐old toddlers who displayed more affect‐related helplessness. No direct relations were found between maternal diagnosis of depression and helplessness in toddlers. Few differences emerged in the behavior of depressed and nondepressed mothers while interacting with their toddlers, and few relations were found between maternal behavior alone and toddlers' helplessness. However, results suggest that maternal behavior moderates the relation between maternal depression (diagnosis, recency, and symptoms) and helplessness. ©2003 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.     

亲子沟通的三层次模型:理论、工具及在小学生中的应用

目前的亲子沟通研究存在测量工具缺乏理论依据、测量层次和内容混乱等问题.本研究在系统论思想的指导下提出亲子沟通的三层次模型,从元素、关系和系统三个层面考察亲子沟通状况,并以此模型为基础编制了相应测量工具.经过文献梳理、理论建构、工具编制等环节,逐步完善了模型和相应测量工具.以371名小学五、六年级儿童为被试,检验了亲子沟通量表的可靠性和有效性,并考察亲子沟通基本状况.结果表明,(1)亲子沟通量表的信、效度指标达到了心理测量学要求,能够用于相关实证研究中;(2)被试家庭中,父母的沟通能力优于儿童,母子沟通质量优于父子沟通,母亲的沟通地位比父亲高;(3)父母的倾听能力能有效预测亲子沟通质量,提高父子沟通质量是让父子和母子两种沟通更协调的主要途径.     

青少年早期同伴拒绝、同伴侵害与抑郁的关系：交叉滞后分析

采用间隔1年的追踪设计,使用结构方程建模对1068名青少年早期个体的同伴拒绝、同伴侵害与抑郁间的关系进行交叉滞后分析。结果发现,（1）在不同时间点上,同伴拒绝、同伴侵害和青少年抑郁之间存在显著正相关;（2）先前的抑郁水平对随后个体遭受的身体侵害和关系侵害均有显著预测作用,而先前的同伴侵害不能显著预测随后青少年的抑郁水平。抑郁对同伴拒绝、以及同伴拒绝对抑郁的预测作用均不显著。（3）同伴拒绝、同伴侵害与抑郁间的关系具有跨性别的一致性。这表明,青少年早期同伴侵害和抑郁间存在单向预测关系,抑郁导致同伴侵害。     

亲子关系对贫困儿童问题行为的影响

以247名贫困儿童为被试进行问卷调查,构建家庭社会经济地位和亲子关系对贫困儿童问题行为的多重中介模型,得到抑郁、自我控制的中介作用。结果显示,亲子关系和社会经济地位分别通过中介路径影响贫困儿童问题行为,与亲子关系有关的中介路径为91.25%,与抑郁有关的中介效应为57.60%,与自我控制有关的中介效应为57.15%. 结论：良好的亲子关系或成为贫困儿童的保护因子;应关注贫困儿童心理健康,增加有效心理疏导机制;注重培养贫困儿童的自我控制能力。     

Inventoried and observed stress in parent-child interactions

It has been hypothesized that parental stress results in poor parent-child interactions. However, this has not been adequately researched due to the difficulty in measuring and quantifying parenting stress and parent-child interaction quality. Two measures were employed in the present study to evaluate the parent-child relationship. The Marschak Interaction Method (MIM) was used to provide a context in which to assess the quality of parent-child interactions, and the Parenting Stress Index (PSI) was used as a measure of stress in the family system. The present study (1) developed a standardized behavioral rating system for the MIM, (2) tested 46 parent-child dyads with the MIM and PSI, and (3) assessed which subscales of the PSI were the best predictors of parent-child behavior observed during the MIM. Parents reporting more stress on the PSI were rated as displaying significantly lower quality (more negative) parentchild interactions. In addition, parents’ socioeconomic status accounted for 65 % of the variance, and parental stress accounted for an additional 9% of the variance, in MIM behavior ratings.     

Connectedness and autonomy support in parent-child relationships: links to children's socioemotional orientation and peer relationships

Connectedness and autonomy support in the parent-child relationship are constructs that emerge from object relations and attachment theories but that overlap with other commonly studied qualities of parent-child relationships to provide a unifying focus for research in this domain. In this study, these constructs were examined in relation to children's relational competence, including socioemotional orientation, friendship, and peer acceptance. Semistructured conversations between mothers and their 5-year-olds (N = 192) were videotaped at home and rated for (a) connectedness between the members of the dyad and (b) the parent' s support for the child's autonomy. Results showed that connectedness was correlated with children's socioemotional orientations, number of mutual friendships, and peer acceptance and that the relation between parent-child connectedness and children's peer relationships was mediated by children's prosocial-empathic orientation. Implications of these findings for theories that link parent-child relationships to the development of relational competence in children are discussed.     

Maternal and Paternal Depressive Symptoms as Predictors of Toddler Adjustment

In this study we explored the relation between maternal and paternal depressive symptoms and toddler adjustment in a community sample, testing direct, additive, and interactive models of parental depressive symptoms and child adjustment. Participants were 49 families with 30-month-old children. Data were collected on maternal and paternal depressive symptoms and marital quality, as well as on toddler internalizing and externalizing behavior. The data supported an additive, but not interactive, model of prediction to externalizing behavior, such that maternal and paternal symptoms each accounted for unique variance in the prediction of toddler externalizing. Models predicting toddler internalizing were not significant. Maternal reports of marital quality, but not paternal reports of marital quality, reduced the magnitude of the relation between symptoms and child externalizing when entered as a covariate. Implications for depression screening of parents are discussed.     

Mother and Child Depressive Symptoms in Youth with Spina Bifida: Additive, Moderator, and Mediator Models

The purpose of the study was to examine the extent to which parenting behaviors influence the relation between maternal and child depressive symptoms in youth with spina bifida and a comparison sample. Previous research has found that maternal depression not only negatively impacts the mother–child relationship, but also places the child at risk for developing depressive symptoms. However, certain parenting behaviors might buffer the association between maternal and youth depression. The influence of maternal depressive symptoms and parenting behavior (i.e., acceptance, behavioral control, psychological control) on youth depressive symptoms were examined in the context of three models: (1) an additive/cumulative risk model, (2) a moderator model, and (3) a mediator model. Data were examined longitudinally at five time points when youth were 8–9 through 16–17 years of age. Results supported an additive/cumulative risk model, but did not support the moderator or mediator models. Low maternal acceptance, high behavioral control, and high psychological control were risk factors for child depressive symptoms at several time points, with maternal depressive symptoms exerting an additional risk at later time points. A group difference between the spina bifida and comparison youth was not supported. Findings indicate that in general, maternal parenting behavior is salient throughout childhood and early adolescence, but maternal depressive symptoms do not exert an influence until mid-adolescence. Family interventions should aim to promote maternal mental health and maternal parenting behaviors to reduce the risk of the development of depressive symptoms in adolescence.     

青少年亲子关系与攻击性行为的关系研究

以670名小学生和初、高中学生为被试,采用问卷法考察青少年攻击性行为的特点,以及亲子关系(亲子依恋、父母教养方式)对于攻击性行为的影响。结果表明:(1)母依恋与父依恋均与攻击性行为及其各个维度有显著的负相关。(2)父母教养方式除了F4(父亲偏爱被试)、M5(母亲偏爱被试)与攻击性行为及其各个维度没有相关外,其他各个维度与攻击性行为及其各个维度均有显著的正相关或负相关。(3)亲子关系对于攻击性行为的预测上,M3(母亲拒绝、否认)、F1(父情感温暖理解)、M2(母过分干涉保护)、M4(母亲惩罚、严厉)这4个维度能预测攻击性行为23%的变异量。     

亲子分离与青少年同伴侵害和抑郁的关系:一项追踪研究

采用追踪研究设计,对贵州省1094名青少年进行了间隔半年的两次测查,考察早期亲子分离对青少年后期同伴侵害经历及抑郁水平的影响及性别差异。结果表明：（1）早期亲子分离能显著增加T1同伴侵害和抑郁,并通过T1的同伴侵害和抑郁间接影响T2的同伴侵害和抑郁;（2）亲子分离、同伴侵害和抑郁的关系存在显著性别差异：在女生组中,早期亲子分离不仅能够显著增加T1抑郁水平,还通过影响T1抑郁间接影响T2的同伴侵害状况,且早期亲子分离也可以边缘显著预测T1的同伴侵害状况;在男生组中,亲子分离仅能显著预测T1的同伴侵害经历,对于T1抑郁及T2时间点的各变量则无显著影响;（3）无论是否受到亲子分离的影响,同伴侵害与青少年抑郁之间均存在相互作用关系。研究结果提示早期亲子分离会导致青少年后期同伴侵害经历及抑郁水平上升,且主要体现在女生群体中,这为经历亲子分离后青少年心理健康干预方案的制定提供了科学依据。