Effect of motivation on academic fluency performance in survivors of pediatric medulloblastoma

It has been proposed previously that extrinsic motivation may enable survivors of childhood medulloblastoma to significantly improve aspects of neurocognitive performance. In healthy populations, enhanced motivation has been shown to promote academic fluency, a domain likely more relevant to the educational outcomes of pediatric medulloblastoma survivors than academic skill development. The present study investigates the effect of enhanced extrinsic motivation on fluent (i.e., accurate and efficient) academic performance in pediatric medulloblastoma survivors. Participants were 36 children, ages 7–18, who had completed treatment for medulloblastoma. Participants completed a neuropsychological battery that included administration of equivalent tasks on Forms A and B of the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement. Half were randomly assigned to an incentive condition prior to the administration of Form B. Provision of a performance-based incentive resulted in statistically significant improvement, but not normalization of function, in performance on measures of academic fluency. No demographic, treatment-related, academic, neuropsychological, or self-perception variables predicted response to incentive. Findings suggest that academic performance of survivors may significantly improve under highly motivating conditions. In addition to implications for educational services, this finding raises the novel possibility that decreased motivation represents an inherent neuropsychological deficit in this population and provides a rationale for further investigation of factors affecting individual differences in motivational processes. Further, by examining effort in a context where effort is not inherently suspect, present findings also significantly contribute to the debate regarding the effects of effort and motivation on neuropsychological performance.     

Integrating Systems of Care in California for Youth with Severe Emotional Disturbance IV: Educational Attendance and Achievement

Empirical results are presented from school-based interventions in three California counties that are pioneering participants in a carefully evaluated effort to create an innovative system of care for youth with severe emotional disturbance. Data are presented about the educational attendance and achievement of youth enrolled in clinical and academic programs designed to provide collaborative mental health and education services. Attendance levels were uniformly high. The youth were below expected grade level as measured by standardized tests at program admission. Across programs, two counties demonstrated grade level increases of one year or more for one year in school on all subscales of established measures of educational achievement. The third county demonstrated increases of slightly less than one year on two of three subscales of the educational achievement measures. These results are the first from a multisite demonstration of integrated education and mental health programs embedded within a broader system of care for youth. The findings, combined with those from our prior studies, illustrate that is possible to reduce and control placements in restrictive levels of care while improving the academic performance of a vast majority of the youth enrolled in specialized programs within the care systems.     

毅力与学业成绩的关系：有意走神和自发走神的不同中介作用

以3372名5年级小学生为研究对象,采用毅力量表、有意走神和自发走神量表以及学业成绩测验,考察毅力（兴趣一致性和坚持努力）对学业成绩的影响,并检验有意走神和自发走神的中介作用。结果发现：（1）兴趣一致性和坚持努力均显著正向预测学业成绩;（2）有意走神、自发走神在兴趣一致性和坚持努力与学业成绩之间均起显著的中介作用,但两者的中介作用模式存在差异。有意走神在兴趣一致性和坚持努力与学业成绩间的中介作用不同：兴趣一致性负向影响有意走神,有意走神正向影响学业成绩,坚持努力正向影响有意走神,有意走神正向影响学业成绩;而自发走神在兴趣一致性和坚持努力对学业成绩预测的中介作用相同,即兴趣一致性和坚持努力均负向影响自发走神,自发走神负向影响学业成绩。     

Cognitive processes in university learning: A developmental framework using structural equation modelling

Background. Both achievement goals and study processing strategies theories have been shown to contribute to the prediction of students’ academic performance. Existing research studies ( Fenollar, Román, & Cuestas, 2007 ; Liem, Lau, & Nie, 2008 ; Simons, Dewitte, & Lens, 2004 ) amalgamating these two theoretical orientations in different causal models have reported their associations with other adaptive strategies and motivational constructs – for example, effort expenditure. Despite this recognition, there have been to date very few studies that explored the relations between achievement goals, study processing strategies, effort, and academic performance over time. Aim of study. The primary focus of our study is to explore the relations between the aforementioned theoretical constructs over a 2‐year period. Specifically, we tested an empirical model that conceptualized the relations between performance‐approach and mastery goals, deep processing strategies, effort, and academic performance across six time points of data collection. Methodology. Two hundred and eighty‐one (161 females, 120 males) university students took part in this study. The participants were administered various Likert‐scale inventories and the overall course mark and final examination were used as indexes of academic performance. Results. Structural equation modelling indicated a relatively good fit to the a posteriori model and the hypothesized paths were, in part, supported. The major findings included the predictive effects of performance‐approach goals at Time 1 on deep processing strategies at Time 2 and mastery goals at Time 3; the predictive effect of mastery goals at Time 3 on effort at Time 4; the predictive effects of deep processing at Time 2 on mastery goals at Time 3 and Time 4. Furthermore, the placement of deep processing and effort in this structural model also accentuated the performance‐approach goals – mastery goals – effort – academic performance relation, and the performance‐approach goals – deep processing – mastery goals – effort – academic performance relation. Discussion. Our study has important theoretical and practical implications concerning the conceptualization of the performance‐approach and mastery goals relationship, and the use of goal structure and adaptive strategies (e.g., deep processing) to enhance academic learning.     

The Eysenckian personality factors and their correlations with academic performance

Background. The relationship between personality and academic performance has long been explored, and a recent meta‐analysis established that measures of the five‐factor model (FFM) dimension of Conscientiousness have similar validity to intelligence measures. Although currently dominant, the FFM is only one of the currently accepted models of personality, and has limited theoretical support. In contrast, the Eysenckian personality model was developed to assess a specific theoretical model and is still commonly used in educational settings and research. Aims. This meta‐analysis assessed the validity of the Eysenckian personality measures for predicting academic performance. Sample. Statistics were obtained for correlations with Psychoticism, Extraversion, and Neuroticism (20–23 samples; N from 8,013 to 9,191), with smaller aggregates for the Lie scale (7 samples; N= 3,910). Methods. The Hunter–Schmidt random effects method was used to estimate population correlations between the Eysenckian personality measures and academic performance. Moderating effects were tested using weighted least squares regression. Results. Significant but modest validities were reported for each scale. Neuroticism and Extraversion had relationships with academic performance that were consistent with previous findings, while Psychoticism appears to be linked to academic performance because of its association with FFM Conscientiousness. Age and educational level moderated correlations with Neuroticism and Extraversion, and gender had no moderating effect. Correlations varied significantly based on the measurement instrument used. Conclusions. The Eysenckian scales do not add to the prediction of academic performance beyond that provided by FFM scales. Several measurement problems afflict the Eysenckian scales, including low to poor internal reliability and complex factor structures. In particular, the measurement and validity problems of Psychoticism mean its continued use in academic settings is unjustified.     

Improving the Performance of Failing Students by Overcoming Their Self-Serving Attributional Biases

The causal impact of attributions on academic performance was examined by changing low-scoring students' attributions regarding their poor performances. Initially, when students who were failing a college course identified the cause of the performance, they emphasized external, uncontrollable causes. Because these self-serving attributions could have perpetuated poor performance on subsequent examinations, students in the experimental condition were exposed to information that suggested that grades in college are caused by internal, controllable factors such as effort and motivation. As predicted, on subsequent tests and on the final examination, these students earned higher grades than control students who received no attributional information. These findings lend support to an attributional model of academic achievement and also suggest that educational interventions that shift attributions away from a self-serving pattern to a performance-facilitating pattern may improve academic outcomes.     

Grit and academic performance among first-year university students: A brief report

This study examined grit and academic performance among a sample of South African university students (n = 121, mean age = 19.55, SD = 1.77, female = 57.85%). Data were collected using the Grit Scale and academic performance was assessed over one academic semester. Simple regression analysis was computed to predict students’ academic achievement from components of their self-reported grit. The grit component of consistency of interest accounted for 3% of the variance in the student’s academic achievement scores. Similarly, the grit component of perseverance of effort explained 9% of the variance in scores. Students who scored high on the Grit Scale also obtained higher academic marks compared to participants who scored low on the same instrument. The findings suggest that grit is an important personal resource for higher education students.     

The role of attitudinal familism in academic outcomes: a study of urban, Latino high school seniors

The aim of this study was to examine the role of attitudinal familism on Latino high school students' academic grades, effort, motivation, and truancy. Results in this study reveal that having high attitudinal familism predicts fewer classes missed and greater academic effort. Also, when mothers' educational level is low, attitudinal familism is positively associated to students' academic grades. This study underscores the need for additional research on cultural measures that can help us better understand Latino adolescents' educational experiences.     

Educational Performance and Psychological Disengagement Among Ethnic-Minority and Dutch Adolescents

The authors used a questionnaire (N = 587) among ethnic-minority and majority group adolescents in The Netherlands to examine the idea that under certain conditions minority group members tend to psychologically disengage their self-evaluation from educational performance. The results showed that only among ethnic minorities, perceived discrimination in school was related to psychological disengagement. Furthermore, among both groups of participants, perceived diagnosticity of performance feedback was negatively related to disengagement. However, among the ethnic minority group this effect was found for only those participants with relatively high educational performance. The results showed that negative experiences in school can lead to psychological disengagement from the academic domain and that disengagement is not restricted to African American students.     

Comparing self-esteem and perceived control as predictors of first-year college students’ academic achievement

Due to its widespread popularity, self-esteem is continually being promoted to students despite limited empirical support for its effectiveness in improving their academic achievement. As a result, constructs that are potentially more salient to academic performance, such as perceived control, have gone relatively unnoticed. Although past research has examined the link between students’ academic achievement and either their self-esteem or perceived control, few studies have compared both constructs simultaneously to elucidate which one is more important to academic success. This longitudinal study directly contrasted the effects of self-esteem and perceived control on the academic performance of 802 first-year college students. After accounting for incoming ability (high school grades), age, and gender, a structural equation model showed perceived control positively predicted students’ GPA. In contrast, the predictive effect of self-esteem on GPA was non-existent. Findings indicate that compared to self-esteem, perceived control is a more powerful predictor of first-year college students’ GPA. Implications for utilizing educational interventions to boost perceived control among college students are discussed.     

Creativity versus conscientiousness: which is a better predictor of student performance?

This paper examines the extent to which the incremental validity of creative thinking (over and above personality) in the prediction of academic performance may be a function of assessment methods. British university students (N = 307) completed the Alternate Uses Test and Big Five personality inventory at the beginning of the first academic year. Students' academic performance was assessed throughout a 4‐year period via written exams, continuous assessment (tutored seminars) and a supervised dissertation in the final year. Creative thinking was more related to final dissertation marks than to exam and continuous assessment performance (which were associated with Conscientiousness, rather than creative thinking). A follow‐up questionnaire on preferences for different assessment methods revealed that creative thinking was positively related to preference for viva voce (oral) exams, group projects and final dissertation, but negatively associated with preferences for multiple‐choice and essay‐type exams, as well as continuous assessment. Implications are discussed with regard to educational settings, in particular assessment methods. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Multiple goals,motivation and academic learning

Background: The type of academic goals pursued by students is one of the most important variables in motivational research in educational contexts. Although motivational theory and research have emphasised the somewhat exclusive nature of two types of goal orientation (learning goals versus performance goals), some studies (Meece, 1994; Seifert, 1995, 1996) have shown that the two kinds of goals are relatively complementary and that it is possible for students to have multiple goals simultaneously, which guarantees some flexibility to adapt more efficaciously to various contexts and learning situations. Aim: The principal aim of this study is to determine the academic goals pursued by university students and to analyse the differences in several very significant variables related to motivation and academic learning. Sample: Participants were 609 university students (74% women and 26% men) who filled in several questionnaires about the variables under study. Method: We used cluster analysis ('quick cluster analysis' method) to establish the different groups or clusters of individuals as a function of the three types of goals (learning goals, performance goals, and social reinforcement goals). By means of MANOVA, we determined whether the groups or clusters identified were significantly different in the variables that are relevant to motivation and academic learning. Lastly, we performed ANOVA on the variables that revealed significant effects in the previous analysis. Results: Using cluster analysis, three groups of students with different motivational orientations were identified: a group with predominance of performance goals (Group PG: n = 230), a group with predominance of multiple goals (Group MG: n = 238), and a group with predominance of learning goals (Group LG: n = 141). Conclusions: Groups MG and LG attributed their success more to ability, they had higher perceived ability, they took task characteristics into account when planning which strategies to use in the learning process, they showed higher persistence, and used more deep learning strategies than did the students with predominance of performance goals (Group PG). On the other hand, Groups MG and PG took the evaluation criteria more into account when deciding which strategies to use in order to learn, and they attributed their failures more to luck than did Group LG. Students from Group MG attributed their success more to effort than did the other two groups and they attained higher achievement than Group PG. Group LG tended to attribute their failures more to lack of effort than did the other two groups.     

Expectancies and attributions for hyperactive and medicated hyperactive students

The present study seeks to document some social consequences of prescribing stimulant medication to a hyperactive child. Eighty students and 15 teachers provided expectancies and attributions for the academic performance of hypothetical medicated and nonmedicated hyperactive children. Both teachers and peers were found to have higher expectancies for the medicated than for the nonmedicated child. Data suggest that these differential expectancies may arise from different explanations for success. The success of the medicated child was attributed to a stable factor (medication), while the nonmedicated child's success was seen as due to an unstable cause (effort). Implications of these differential expectancies and attributions for the academic performance of medicated and nonmedicated hyperactive students are discussed.This research was supported in part by a grant from the Spencer Foundation to Bernard Weiner.     

Effects of reprimands and praise on appropriate behavior in the classroom

The effects of positive consequences on appropriate behavior at the beginning of a classroom experience were examined during an academic program for students with behavioral and academic difficulties. The results showed that the use of reprimands alone was associated with high levels of on-task behaviors during the initial days of the class. The addition of praise produced no change in the rate of on-task behaviors or the level of academic performance. The withdrawal of all consequences caused significant decreases in on-task behavior and academic productivity. The subsequent use of praise alone led to an initial increase followed by a dramatic decline in on-task performance, resulting in no change in the average rate of on-task behavior relative to the use of no consequences. These results are consistent with previous findings indicating the importance of reprimands for maintaining appropriate classroom behavior. Speculations regarding potential roles of praise are briefly discussed.The authors wish to thank classroom teacher Bonnie Chatterton for her exceptional cooperation and effort, Mark Gunning for his valuable assistance in the data collection, and Ann Abramowitz for her helpful editorial comments.     

The relation between perceived parental involvement and academic achievement: the roles of Taiwanese students' academic beliefs and filial piety

The excellent academic performance among East-Asian students has drawn international attention from educators and psychologists. However, the process that underlies student academic achievement for this particular group has rarely been documented. The present study examines how the relation between perceived parental involvement and Taiwanese students' academic achievement is mediated by student academic beliefs (i.e., beliefs about effort, academic self-concept, and perceived control). The study further explores whether this mediating effect varies with types of filial piety. Participants were 468 first-year students from colleges and universities in Taiwan. Multiple-group mediating models were analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM). Results indicated that, for the Taiwanese sample, students' academic beliefs mediated the relation between perceived parental involvement and academic achievement. Furthermore, the mediational effect was significant for the reciprocal filial type, but not for the authoritarian filial type. The importance of the quality of the parent-child relationship and the internalization process related to children's assumptions of their parents' educational values indicate the need for a contextual view when examining predictors of student academic achievement.     

Opinion Change in Time of War

Two hundred ninety-five college students were tested to determine the effects of specified variables of self-appraisal and task appraisal on achievement, self-assessment of achievement, and expended effort. Primary results were as follows: (a) The academic self-concept was found to contribute significantly to achievement on a specific task. Partial correlation between the academic self-concept and task achievement with intelligence controlled was .39 (p ≤ .05). A nonsignificant partial correlation between task confidence and task achievement with intelligence controlled was .16 (considered high enough to warrant further study). (b) Approximately two-thirds of the variance in self-assessment of achievement was found to be due to one's perceived achievement on a specific task. The variables of self-appraisal (i. e., academic self-concept and self-confidence) were not found to affect self-assessment of achievement, nor the variables of task appraisal (i. e., task confidence and task interest). Expended effort appears to have had a small part in the total variance of self-assessment of achievement. (c) Expended effort was found to be significantly related to task interest, but variables of self-appraisal did not contribute significantly to expended effort.     

Do Both Intrinsic and Identified Motivations Have Long-Term Effects?

This research examined the possible long-term effects of autonomous motivation on educational outcomes in the large scale High School Longitudinal Study 2009 (HSLS:09) data. We used a three-wave cross-lagged model to examine the longitudinal effects of intrinsic and identified motivation on 18,132 students in the mathematics domain and 16,684 students in the science domain. The results showed that intrinsic motivation was a long-term and effective enhancement agent on the subsequent academic performance, self-efficacy, identity, and course effort. In contrast, identified motivation might be sensitive to the contexts and was thus vulnerable to change in the long-term effects. Though identified motivation has positive effects on some immediate educational outcomes and is often regarded as “helpful” motivation, its positive effect is probably short-lived and might not last long in real life educational settings.     

Processing efficiency theory in children: working memory as a mediator between trait anxiety and academic performance

Working memory skills are positively associated with academic performance. In contrast, high levels of trait anxiety are linked with educational underachievement. Based on Eysenck and Calvo's (1992) processing efficiency theory (PET), the present study investigated whether associations between anxiety and educational achievement were mediated via poor working memory performance. Fifty children aged 11-12 years completed verbal (backwards digit span; tapping the phonological store/central executive) and spatial (Corsi blocks; tapping the visuospatial sketchpad/central executive) working memory tasks. Trait anxiety was measured using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children. Academic performance was assessed using school administered tests of reasoning (Cognitive Abilities Test) and attainment (Standard Assessment Tests). The results showed that the association between trait anxiety and academic performance was significantly mediated by verbal working memory for three of the six academic performance measures (math, quantitative and non-verbal reasoning). Spatial working memory did not significantly mediate the relationship between trait anxiety and academic performance. On average verbal working memory accounted for 51% of the association between trait anxiety and academic performance, while spatial working memory only accounted for 9%. The findings indicate that PET is a useful framework to assess the impact of children's anxiety on educational achievement.     

The effect of stereotype threat on student-athlete math performance

ObjectivesTo assess whether a subtle stereotype threat of student-athletes would cause a decrease in both academic effort and performance.DesignA 2 (Male/Female) x 2 (Athlete Prime/No Athlete Prime) design was used to assess effort and performance on a math test.MethodA subtle threat manipulation was used to prime half of 60 NCAA Division III student-athletes with their athletic identity prior to taking a difficult math test.ResultsSupporting the hypotheses, student-athletes who were primed with their athletic identity attempted significantly fewer problems and received lower mean math scores than those who were not primed. Contrary to hypotheses, gender did not impact effort or performance, and there was no evidence of buffering effects of priming non-athlete identities.ConclusionsThe results of this experiment provide evidence for stereotype threat effects across genders and into Division III athletes, which potentially impact student-athlete academic performance.     

Academic self‐concept and academic achievement: Relations and causal ordering

Background. A positive self‐concept is valued as a desirable outcome in many disciplines of psychology as well as an important mediator to other outcomes. Aims. The present review examines support for the reciprocal effects model (REM) that posits academic self‐concept (ASC) and achievement are mutually reinforcing, each leading to gains in the other – and its extension to other achievement domains. Method. We review theoretical, methodological, and empirical support for the REM. Critical features in this research are a theoretical emphasis on multidimensional perspectives that focus on specific components of self‐concept and a methodological focus on a construct validity approach to evaluating the REM. Results. Consistent with these distinctions, REM research and a comprehensive meta‐analysis show that prior ASC has direct and indirect effects on subsequent achievement, whilst the effects of self‐esteem and other non‐academic components of self‐concept are negligible. We then provide an overview of subsequent support for the generality of the REM for: young children, cross‐cultural, health (physical activity), and non‐elite (gymnastics) and elite (international swimming championships) sport. Conclusion. This research is important in demonstrating that increases in ASC lead to increases in subsequent academic achievement and other desirable educational outcomes. Findings confirm that not only is self‐concept an important outcome variable in itself, it also plays a central role in affecting other desirable educational outcomes. Implications for educational practice are discussed.