Benefit Finding and Physical Health: Positive Psychological Changes and Enhanced Allostasis

Many individuals who undergo stressful life events report that they have derived some positive benefit from the experience. Although the majority of research on benefit finding has focused on its psychological correlates, there is intriguing evidence that benefit finding may also have effects on physical health. In this paper, we review the emerging literature on benefit finding and physical health and present an integrative model in which we identify specific psychological and physiological pathways through which benefit finding may influence physical health outcomes. In particular, we consider the hypothesis that benefit finding may involve changes in a number of psychological domains – namely, changes in appraisal and coping processes, relationships, goals and priorities, and positive affect – that lead to a state of enhanced allostasis, buffering against negative effects of catabolic stress responses and promoting activity in restorative physiological systems. Empirical evidence for this model is reviewed, focusing on studies that have examined positive psychological constructs relevant to benefit finding and their effects on stress reactivity, recovery, and habituation, as well as restorative processes.     

“非典”流行期民众常见的心理应激反应与心理干预

该文介绍了传染性非典型性肺炎（严重的急性呼吸综合征,SARS）急性流行期我国民众较常见的心理应激反应,包括焦虑和恐惧、愤怒和怨恨以及抑郁等情绪反应,认知反应,自我防御反应和生理反应,描述了人们面对SARS威胁时的应对策略;探讨了当前影响民众心理反应的诸种因素,包括刺激事件或刺激情境的性质与特点,对事物的态度和认识评价,应对挑战的能力与应对方式,以及心理社会环境和人格特征等;指出了心理干预应当遵循的四个原则和多种形式,说明了6种心理干预的具体措施和方法。     

Relations among Personality Characteristics,Environmental Events,Coping Behavior and Adolescents’ Life Satisfaction

This study extended current positive psychological research by examining the mediating role of coping behavior in the relations between environmental and intrapersonal variables as predictors of adolescent global life satisfaction, based on Evans’ (Soc Indic Res 33:47–88, 1994) proposed model. Specifically, we assessed the relations between personality traits (extraversion, neuroticism) and environmental experiences (stressful life events) predicting early adolescents’ global life satisfaction as mediated by approach and avoidance coping behaviors using a sample of 529 students from one middle school in the southeastern United States. The results supported portions of Evans’ model. Statistically significant relations were found for a number of individual pathways between personality and environmental variables (i.e., predictors) and coping variables (i.e., mediators) as well as between approach coping (i.e., one mediator) and life satisfaction (i.e., outcome). Additionally, a small but statistically significant pathway was found between extraversion and life satisfaction when mediated by approach coping. Results suggest that personality, environmental stressors and coping behaviors may play a role in the development of life satisfaction among early adolescents.     

If at first you don't succeed: the neuroendocrine impact of using a range of strategies during social conflict

Using a variety of cognitive or behavioral strategies to manage stressful situations may be more adaptive than relying on a narrow selection. Although research has explored the psychological benefits of a range of coping responses, the physiological impact within and across stressful situations has not been examined. Moreover, research has primarily relied upon self-reports of what people believe they generally do across stressful situations, which may be subject to recall bias. This study observed and coded the range of behavioral response strategies that young adults (n=74, mean age 18.1) used to manage a laboratory-based, interpersonal conflict task and collected self-reports of the cognitive strategies used to manage similar stressors. Analyses examined the impact of response range on cortisol activity during the task. Greater range of observed response strategies predicted lower cortisol reactivity (t(133)=2.65; p=.009), whereas the range of self-reported strategies was unrelated to cortisol reactivity (t(133)=.53; p=.60). Results support observational assessment as an important supplement to self-reports of responses to stress and suggest that the range of strategies used to manage the momentary demands of a stressful situation may help explain individual differences in the impact of stress on physiological systems.     

Perceived control, coping efficacy, and avoidance coping as mediators between spouses' unsupportive behaviors and cancer patients' psychological distress.

This study examined whether avoidance, coping efficacy, and perceived control mediate the effects of spouses' unsupportive behaviors on patient psychological distress among 191 married individuals enrolled in cancer treatment. Results of the structural equation analyses suggested that avoidance and coping efficacy mediated the relationship between spouses' unsupportive behaviors and patient psychological distress. Perceived control of emotional aspects of the illness, including emotional responses and relationships with family and friends, and perceived control of the medical course of the cancer did not mediate the relationship between spouses' unsupportive behaviors and patient psychological distress. These findings suggest 2 mechanisms to explain why unsupportive responses from spouses may be associated with psychological distress among cancer patients.     

Dynamics of a stressful encounter: cognitive appraisal, coping, and encounter outcomes

Despite the importance that is attributed to coping as a factor in psychological and somatic health outcomes, little is known about actual coping processes, the variables that influence them, and their relation to the outcomes of the stressful encounters people experience in their day-to-day lives. This study uses an intraindividual analysis of the interrelations among primary appraisal (what was at stake in the encounter), secondary appraisal (coping options), eight forms of problem- and emotion-focused coping, and encounter outcomes in a sample of community-residing adults. Coping was strongly related to cognitive appraisal; the forms of coping that were used varied depending on what was at stake and the options for coping. Coping was also differentially related to satisfactory and unsatisfactory encounter outcomes. The findings clarify the functional relations among appraisal and coping variables and the outcomes of stressful encounters.     

Toward an understanding of psychological burnout among police officers

This study examined a research model developed to understand psychological burnout among police officers. Data were collected from 828 men and women in police work using questionnaires completed anonymously. Five groups of predictor variables identified in previous research were considered: individual demographic and situational variables, work stressors, stressful events, work-family conflict and coping responses. Sources of stress (chronic stressors, stressful events, work-family conflict) were significantly related to levels of psychological burnout when individual demographic and situational variables were controlled.     

The Role of Optimism,Social Constraints,Coping, and Cognitive Processing in Psychosocial Adjustment Among Breast Cancer Survivors

The social-cognitive processing model suggests that a socially constrained environment may impede adjustment to a chronic illness. The present study primarily investigated the mediating psychological pathways through which social constraints on cancer-related disclosure, low optimism, disengagement-oriented coping, and brooding could be associated with low levels of psychosocial adjustment. One hundred twenty-five female breast cancer survivors participated in a cross-sectional study. Path analysis was used to examine the proposed model. Low optimism, increased social constraints, and higher levels of brooding appeared to be risk factors for poor psychosocial adjustment to breast cancer. Disengagement-oriented coping and brooding partially mediated the relationship between social constraints and adjustment. Brooding totally mediated the relationship between disengagement-oriented coping and adjustment. The current findings provide support for the value of the social-cognitive processing model among breast cancer survivors. The mapping of psychological pathways of adjustment to breast cancer may have useful clinical implications for better adjustment outcomes.     

Flexible coping responses to severe acute respiratory syndrome-related and daily life stressful events

Based on the theoretical framework of coping flexibility, the present study examined the coping flexibility of university students in response to severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-related and daily life stressful events. The Coping Flexibility Questionnaire was used to investigate 93 university students' coping responses toward 10 SARS-related stressful events and 10 daily life stressful events that generally occur among university students. Results showed that the patterns of coping flexibility were different for the two types of stressful events. The flexible and the active-inflexible patterns were most commonly found in coping with daily life stressful events. By contrast, the passive-inconsistent pattern was dominant when coping with daily life stressful events. Moreover, participants showed lower discriminating ability to situation controllability, and displayed poorer strategy-situation fit to cope with SARS-related events than with daily life stressful events. The theoretical and practical implications of this study are discussed.     

Coping,life stress,and psychological and somatic distress

Theory and research have focused on the relationships among coping processes, stressful life events, and psychological and physical distress. This study was designed to examine the relationship of stressful life events and three styles of coping—emotion oriented, task oriented, and avoidance oriented—to physical and psychological distress. Questionnaires measuring coping styles, recent life stressors, and both physical symptoms and psychological symptoms were completed by 205 undergraduates (101 males and 104 females). It was hypothesized that task-oriented coping would negatively predict distress and that emotion-oriented coping would positively predict distress. The relationships of two types of avoidance-oriented coping (distraction and social diversion) to distress were also examined. Multiple regression analyses revealed that task-oriented coping was negatively related to distress, but only for males. Emotion-oriented coping was significantly positively predictive of distress for both males and females. The two subcomponents of avoidance-oriented coping—distraction and social diversion—were differentially related to measures of distress. Life event stress positively predicted distress, both as an independent contributor of variance and in interaction with several coping styles.     

Psychological predictors of coping responses among Greek basketball referees

The authors examined the effects of situational appraisals (perceived control and intensity), coping styles (monitoring and blunting), and personal dispositions (optimism and self-esteem) on the approach and avoidance coping responses of skilled Greek basketball referees (N = 162) and the consistency of their responses following 3 game-related stressful situations. In an effort to clarify the variables involved in coping and to consider the theoretical principles both within and beyond sports, the authors replicated an earlier study among Australian basketball referees (A. Kaissidis-Rodafinos, M. H. Anshel, & A. Porter, 1997). The results were equivocal: The Greek referees were not consistent in using avoidance and approach coping responses across situations. Approach coping was more predictable than avoidance coping in accounting for both situational and personal variables.     

The Interactional Context of Problem-, Emotion-, and Relationship-Focused Coping: The Role of the Big Five Personality Factors

ABSTRACT This study examined the role that personality and situational factors play in three forms of coping responses: problem-, emotion- and relationship-focused. Coping responses were strongly associated with whether the situation involved a primarily agentic (work) or communal (interpersonal) stressor. Among communal stressors, the involvement of close versus distant others was also associated with coping responses. Situational factors were linked most strongly with the use of problem-focused (planful problem solving) and relationship-focused (empathic responding) modes of coping. Dimensions of personality derived from the five-factor model (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness) had important associations with coping responses. Coping responses were best predicted by models that included both the additive and multiplicative effects of person and situation factors. Taken together, the findings suggest that a model of coping that considers both agentic and communal dimensions of stressful situations, includes interpersonal dimensions of coping, and considers personality and situation factors in tandem is needed to increase the predictive utility of current models.     

Coping and sensitivity to aversive events

To test further the sensitivity to aversive events hypothesis, males and females varying in level of depressed mood listened to positive, negative, and neutral social scenes while psychophysiological measurements were obtained. In addition, the relations among response styles, coping strategies, and psychological adjustment were examined. Results indicated that only dysphoric females responded in ways consistent with the sensitivity hypothesis, exhibiting greater electrodermal responses to negative social scenes compared to nondysphoric females. No differences in psychophysiological sensitivity were found between dysphoric and nondysphoric males. Dysphoric students engaged in more ruminative type responses in reaction to their depressed mood and reported using more avoidant coping strategies in response to stress. In particular, females utilized more ruminative strategies in response to a depressed mood and more emotion-focused coping strategies in response to stressful events in general. The implications for these results are discussed within a diathesis-stress framework.     

Psychological Predictors of Coping Responses Among Greek Basketball Referees

Abstract

The authors examined the effects of situational appraisals (perceived control and intensity), coping styles (monitoring and blunting), and personal dispositions (optimism and self-esteem) on the approach and avoidance coping responses of skilled Greek basketball referees (N = 162) and the consistency of their responses following 3 game-related stressful situations. In an effort to clarify the variables involved in coping and to consider the theoretical principles both within and beyond sports, the authors replicated an earlier study among Australian basketball referees (A. Kaissidis-Rodafinos, M. H. Anshel, & A. Porter, 1997). The results were equivocal: The Greek referees were not consistent in using avoidance and approach coping responses across situations. Approach coping was more predictable than avoidance coping in accounting for both situational and personal variables.     

Family processes,resourcefulness, coping,and stress: A prospective study

A review of the family therapy literature indicates that few studies have investigated the complex relationship among family processes, coping, and stress in understanding how people manage stressful events and conditions. The purpose of the present study was to utilize a prospective research design to systemically explore the impact of family processes on an individual's ability to use effective coping responses when faced with a stressful situation. The results did indicate that individuals experienced greater strain at Time 1 (awaiting exam). However, no differences were found between family process variables and an individual's coping responses between Time 1 and Time 2 (awaiting results). Suggestions for further research on intergenerational family systems theory and implications for family therapy practice are provided.     

Perceptual style and behavioral pattern of individuals with functional gastrointestinal disorders.

The present research examined the perceptual style and coping pattern characterizing individuals with functional gastrointestinal disorders. A matched case-control design was adopted to compare differences among the target group of individuals with functional gastrointestinal disorders (n = 40), a pain control group of individuals with rheumatism (n = 40), and the community control group of healthy individuals (n = 40). Perceptual style was measured by both monitoring and blunting responses to hypothetical stressful situations, and coping pattern was measured by the use of coping strategies in real-life stressful events. Results revealed that participants with functional gastrointestinal disorders differed from their healthy and rheumatic counterparts in having higher monitoring and lower blunting scores and using action-oriented coping strategies regardless of the controllability of stressful situations.     

The transactional psychobiological nature of cognitive appraisal during exercise in environmentally stressful conditions

Background and Purpose: Successful adaptation to the stress of physical exertion in adverse environmental conditions (heat, cold, high altitude) is of great concern when optimal performance within safe parameters is the goal. The perception of the psychophysical demands imposed by the stressful situation and the perceived capability to cope with these demands is a process that can dramatically alter the intensity of the ensuing physiological activation. Thus, exercise in environmentally stressful conditions provides an excellent model for examining the relationship between the cognitive appraisal of the physical stress and the ensuing stress response. A brief review of the research on cognitive appraisals during exercise in stressful environments provides evidence of the connection between cognitive appraisals and the stress response during exercise under environmental stress and demonstrates a need for a transactional psychobiological model proposed in this paper. This model attributes a central role to the continuous cognitive appraisal of the situation by the individual.Methods: Computer searches of psychological, sport science, and medical databases using the terms exercise, heat, cold, high altitude, environmental stress, and ratings of perceived exertion were conducted. Additionally, the reference citations in the obtained articles were searched for relevant studies. An abridged integrated review summarizes the critical findings and limitations. Furthermore, literature supporting the proposed transactional psychobiological model is presented.Results and Conclusions: Further investigation into the psychophysical and the affective responses to exercise in adverse environmental conditions can be facilitated through the utilization of the proposed transactional psychobiological model.     

Appraisal, coping, health status, and psychological symptoms

In this study we examined the relation between personality factors (mastery and interpersonal trust), primary appraisal (the stakes a person has in a stressful encounter), secondary appraisal (options for coping), eight forms of problem- and emotion-focused coping, and somatic health status and psychological symptoms in a sample of 150 community-residing adults. Appraisal and coping processes should be characterized by a moderate degree of stability across stressful encounters for them to have an effect on somatic health status and psychological symptoms. These processes were assessed in five different stressful situations that subjects experienced in their day-to-day lives. Certain processes (e.g., secondary appraisal) were highly variable, whereas others (e.g., emotion-focused forms of coping) were moderately stable. We entered mastery and interpersonal trust, and primary appraisal and coping variables (aggregated over five occasions), into regression analyses of somatic health status and psychological symptoms. The variables did not explain a significant amount of the variance in somatic health status, but they did explain a significant amount of the variance in psychological symptoms. The pattern of relations indicated that certain variables were positively associated and others negatively associated with symptoms.     

“Taking another route”: Daily survival narratives from mothers who are homeless

Homelessness among families has become a growing social problem for communities, yet little is known about the types of daily survival strategies such families employ. This paper presents results of a qualitative study of the coping narratives of 64 mothers living in temporary emergency shelters with their children. The women reported using a variety of coping responses to daily stressful events. These included the use of direct actions and more palliative strategies. Results suggest that stress and coping theory may be useful for understanding homelessness. Implications for program development and future research are discussed.     

Coping, Conflictual Social Interactions, Social Support, and Mood Among HIV-Infected Persons

This study considers the interrelationships among coping, conflictual social interactions, and social support, as well as their combined associations with positive and negative mood. Research has shown that each of these variables affects adjustment to stressful circumstances. Few studies, however, examine this full set of variables simultaneously. One hundred forty HIV-infected persons completed a questionnaire containing measures of coping, social support, conflictual social interactions, and positive and negative mood. Factor analyses showed that perceived social support and conflictual social interactions formed separate factors and were not strongly related. Compared to perceived social support, social conflict was more strongly related to coping behaviors, especially to social isolation, anger, and wishful thinking. Conflictual social interactions were more strongly related to negative mood than was perceived social support. Coping by withdrawing socially was significantly related to less positive and greater negative mood. The findings point to the importance of simultaneously considering coping, supportive relationships, and conflictual relationships in studies of adjustment to chronic illness. In particular, a dynamic may occur in which conflictual social interactions and social isolation aggravate each other and result in escalating psychological distress.