The Divergent Paths of Behavior Analysis and Psychology: Vive la Différence!

Twenty years ago I suggested that behavior analysts could effect a quiet and covert takeover of the American Psychological Association (APA). I gave as precedents the operation of similar initiatives in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the Darwinian-inspired X-Club, and the psychoanalytically-oriented Secret Ring. Though a conscientious program of working within established APA bylaws and rules, behavior analysts could ensure that behavior analysts were nominated for every significant elective position within the APA, and move to get their colleagues placed in appointive positions, such as journal editorships, review boards, and major committees. This would be one approach to remake psychology along behavioral lines, which was an early ambition of B. F. Skinner. The community of behavior analysts ignored my suggestion, and instead pursued the path of creating an independent discipline of practitioners, one with its own degree-granting programs, conventions, journals, and legal regulation. This effort has been immensely successful, although much critical work remains to be done. In retrospect, I was wrong to suggest changing psychology from within, and I have been delighted to witness the emergence of our new and independent field.     

Threat assessment: defining an approach for evaluating risk of targeted violence.

Although the field of risk assessment has made tremendous advances in the past 20 years, assessments of targeted violence continue to pose a significant challenge to law enforcement, mental health, and other professionals. These specific and critical assessments require an innovative approach. The threat assessment model, developed and refined by the U.S. Secret Service, provides a useful framework for thinking about assessments of potential for targeted violence. In this paper, we attempt to define this approach as it has been developed by the Secret Service, and apply it within the existing professional/scientific literature on risk assessment. We begin with a brief review of existing models and approaches in risk assessment, and identification of some gaps in our existing knowledge as it relates to assessments of targeted violence. We then proceed with an outline of the threat assessment approach, including a review of principles and guiding operational questions, and discussion of its use in assessment of targeted violence.     

Mental health consultation to law enforcement: Secret Service development of a Mental Health Liaison Program

The Mental Health Liaison Program developed and used by the Secret Service is presented as a model for comprehensive, multidimensional interactions between law enforcement and mental health systems, with particular focus on assessing and preventing violent behavior. The structure of the program pairs consultants—psychologists and psychiatrists—with Secret Service field offices to provide (a) consultation regarding risk assessment and case management of individuals who threaten or display inappropriate interest in the President or other protectees; (b) training for agents on risk assessment, mental illness, and mental health care issues; and (c) liaison activities between the Secret Service and the mental health community. Practical benefits to the Secret Service are discussed to encourage more systematic use of broad based psychological and psychiatric consultation to law enforcement, with a goal of enhanced intersystem communication and collaboration. The need for program evaluation and outcome research is discussed in the context of applying the model to improve other mental health and law enforcement systems interactions. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Relationships between the U.S. Secret Service and the behavioral and social sciences

The United States Secret Service is a federal law enforcement agency of the U.S. Department of the Treasury. The Secret Service investigates crimes related to U.S. currency, credit card fraud, forgery of government obligations, and other related violations. However, the Secret Service is perhaps best known for its protective and investigative responsibilities involving the President and Vice President of the United States, members of their immediate families, and visiting foreign dignitaries. During the past 22 years, concern for protective responsibilities has provoked occasional and sometimes fruitful dialogue between the Secret Service and members of the professional behavioral and social sciences communities. This article describes the evolution and future possibilities of that relationship by providing: (a) a brief history and overview of the Secret Service, focusing on its protective and investigative responsibilities, (b) an analysis of the recent contributions of the behavioral and social sciences to the Secret Service, and (c) an assessment of current and future directions to be taken in the professional behavioral sciences intramural and extramural research programs recently established by the Secret Service.     

Parallels Between Near-Death Experience Prophetic Visions and Prophecies from the Bible and Mormon Holy Writ

In 1982, Kenneth Ring identified a phenomenon where some near-death experiencers were permitted to see a picture of the Earth's future as a prophetic vision or PV. In his study of the PV, Ring identified five elements of the PV for the future of the Earth as geophysical changes, meteorological changes, supply and economic breakdowns, nuclear war, and a new era of love and world peace. He also mentioned two other features, the death of many and a time frame for the elements. A comparison of the events of near-death experience prophetic visions of the Earth's future and prophecies from the Bible and the Mormons' Doctrine and Covenants shows nearly complete agreement. These catastrophic events are prophesied to occur on the Earth into the 21^st century and to culminate with a new world of peace that is constituted of good people.     

Forced Secularization in Soviet Russia: Why an Atheistic Monopoly Failed

Under communism, the Russian religious landscape consisted mainly of two competitors—a severely repressed Russian Orthodox Church and a heavily promoted atheist alternative to religion called "scientific atheism." Under these circumstances, one might expect the rapid spread of religious disbelief, but the intensity of the atheist campaign originated from official mandate and not popular appeal. In turn, scientific atheism never inspired the Russian population and grew increasingly uninspired as Soviet officials created a monopoly "church" of scientific atheism in hopes of replacing persistent religious beliefs and practices. This article is dedicated to explaining why Communists could not successfully convert the masses to atheism. The findings provide evidence that systems of belief require more than simply the power of promotion and coercion to become accepted.     

Culture, trauma, and wellness: a comparison of heterosexual and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and two-spirit native americans

In a community-based sample of urban American Indian and Alaska Native adults, 25 lesbian, gay, bisexual, and two-spirit participants were compared with 154 heterosexual participants with respect to sociodemographic characteristics, Native, cultural participation, trauma, physical and mental health, and substance use. Compared with their heterosexual counterparts, two-spirit participants reported higher rates of childhood physical abuse and more historical trauma in their families, higher levels of psychological symptoms, and more mental health service utilization. Two-spirit participants reported differences in patterns of alcohol use and were more likely to have used illicit drugs other than marijuana. Discussion and recommendations for health promotion interventions and future research are presented in consideration of an "indigenist" health model and the multiple minority status of two-spirit people.     

Interaction with the United States Secret Service: Views of a mental health professional

Following a 1981 conference on Behavioral Science and the Secret Service, the author and his colleagues worked with the Service in a number of capacities. This paper summarizes their experience, with particular reference to the mentally ill threateners that come to the attention of the Secret Service. This experience offers one model for interaction between the Secret Service and a mental health agency, keeping clear the different roles of each.     

Defining the emotional contours of exotic dance

Recent years have witnessed a surge of investigative and reflective writings about sex work, many by sex workers themselves. Katherine Frank and Elisabeth Eaves’ books are recent additions to this growing field of study. In G-Strings and Sympathy: Strip Club Regulars and Male Desire, Katherine Frank analyzes the contexts and meanings of strip clubs for heterosexual male clients. In Bare: On Women, Dancing, Sex, and Power, Elisabeth Eaves recounts her experiences as a peep show dancer and stripper. Though covering similar territory, their analytic paths diverge widely. As a reader at the cross-roads of choosing either book, the choice is a matter of intellectual standards, taste, and purpose.     

Effects of aquatic training on swimming skill development of preschool children

This research investigated the effects of aquatic training on the swimming performance of 126 children, ages 2.5 to 5.5 yr., over 8 mo. Two groups of children were enrolled in an aquatic training program. Group 1 were returning program participants at the beginning of this study, and Group 2 were new participants. The control children (Group 3) received no aquatic training during the research. Subjects performed six categories of swimming tasks at three points in time--1st mo., 4th mo., and 8th mo. The categories were Locomotion: Front, Locomotion: Back, Kicking, Entry: Jump, Diving, and Ring Pick-up. A 2 X 3 X 2 X 3 (sex X group X age X time) repeated-measures analysis of variance procedure showed that returning participants performed each category of swimming tasks at a more advanced level than the other groups at each time of measurement. New participants after training performed five of the categories of tasks at a more advanced level than the control group. Amount of training significantly influenced swimming, and training effects were task-specific when data were interpreted in terms of specific movement characteristics.     

Voluntary euthanasia and the right to die: a dialogue with Derek Humphry

Both the terminally ill and those responsible for their care may experience conflict and limited freedom of choice with respect to the right to die. Derek Humphry, founder of the Hemlock Society, shares his personal experience, as well as his efforts to educate the public and stimulate legal reform. He has dedicated more than a decade of prime professional years to this highly charged universal problem.     

Competitive factors of electronic dance music festivals with Social Networking Service (SNS) citizenship behaviour of international tourists

This study examined the comparative advantages of prestige service labelling (VIP), online marketing, and image differentiation when applied as marketing strategies to build tourist loyalty as a component of citizenship behaviour. The participants were 220 African tourists attending the World Club Dome Korea 2017 festival event. Following data collection, we conducted a hierarchical regression analysis to determine how VIP, online marketing, and image differentiation influenced tourist social networking service (SNS) citizenship behaviour. The results suggest that VIP and image differentiation to positively predict SNS citizenship behaviour, whereas this was not the case for online marketing. VIP had a higher influence on tourist SNS citizenship behaviour than image differentiation. In summary, strategies to attract tourists with high purchasing power should include prestige service branding with clear image differentiation. This exclusivity could be applied to online ticketing services for their added value to tourism promotion.     

惯例的实证研究进展：心理学的视角

惯例是人们在重复解决同一问题时形成的程序化行为或策略,它既可以从个体,也可以从群体的视角来研究。在心理学中,惯例的研究始于思维定势和内隐学习;近年来,在现代认知心理学的推动下,研究者们已从个体与群体问题解决、决策的视角对它进行了一系列研究;而惯例重复性的特征又为它与重复博弈的交叉研究提供了可能。未来的惯例研究可以在以往研究基础上,从其普遍性和特点、信息搜索、知识迁移等角度展开。     

The metaphysical club at the Johns Hopkins University (1879-1885)

Of the earliest American universities, The Johns Hopkins in Baltimore holds a unique position for psychology. At Hopkins, many of America's first psychologists received their graduate training. Of special interest is the Hopkins Metaphysical Club, organized in 1879 by Charles Sanders Peirce. It provided a forum for research and scholarship by faculty and students. Papers related to topics of the "new" psychology began to appear in 1883, about the time G. Stanley Hall was given a 3-year appointment at Hopkins. When Peirce departed Hopkins in 1885, Hall was free to develop psychology in his image and disbanded the club. Nevertheless, the Metaphysical Club played an important role in the emergence of American scientific psychology.     

工作场所文明行为：从内隐的自我提升到外显的组织优化

工作场所文明行为是一种在组织文化下, 基于社会和组织角色义务的, 传达礼貌和尊重的主动性行为, 是一种向内要求自我控制, 向外主张尊重传达的行为, 它对于个体自身性格的塑造、组织中人际关系的改善以及文明氛围的培养都具有积极意义。在员工-员工、领导-下属、员工-顾客等关系中, 工作场所文明行为发挥着增进同事情谊、促进合作、增强领导力、建立信任、提升绩效等作用。未来的研究应该进一步厘清工作场所文明行为与不文明行为的关系, 运用动态视角研究它们发生、发展和被感知的机制, 以及这两种行为能否相互转化等问题。     

A study of presidential assassins

Twenty-two people who were presidential assassins and other similarly dangerous persons were assessed from information contained in Secret Service files and in published accounts. These documents were studied in order to determine common characteristics as well as other clues to the identification of potentially dangerous persons. Although there was no single pattern of development, there was a pattern of maladjustment that embraced common feelings of inadequacy or persecution, which led to similar patterns of behavior when attempting to resolve frustration. In practical terms, these profiles show:

• 1 A systematic pattern of inadequacy in dealing with social, intellectual, and vocational challenges.
• 2 A corresponding absence of any positive channel for achieving satisfaction or a sense of accomplishment.

In uniquely personal ways, each of these chronically frustrated individuals came to view his or her target either as the personification of the oppressive system, or as the agent through whom he or she could achieve “one great act,” or otherwise gain instant attention and status.     

Religious Wars in the NDE Movement: Some Personal Reflections on Michael Sabom's Light & Death

After a short personal glance at the early days of the field of near-death studies, I offer an open letter to Michael Sabom in response to his book, Light & Death (Sabom, 1998). This letter is in effect both a reply to certain criticisms Sabom has made of my work and an attempt to make public certain significant changes in my own view of near-death experiences (NDEs) since the publication of Heading Toward Omega (Ring, 1984), particularly in regard to their being a catalyst for higher consciousness. The second part of this essay presents a personal perspective on the ideological role of religion in the NDE movement, which I see as corrupting the original vision that prompted the formation of the field of near-death studies. I end with an ecumenical call for a return to the values of nontheologically driven inquiry with which near-death studies began.     

Prenatal drug exposure and the conceptualization of long-term effects

This paper discusses several factors affecting the development of children prenatally exposed to drugs. In the "first generation" of research in this field a main factor model of disease formed the basis for a belief in the feasibility of detecting the direct pharmacological or teratogenic effects of drug exposure on long-term child development. However, the clustering of confounding variables has constituted a major problem in identifying these effects. In the last few years a "second generation" of research in this field has emerged, and investigators have moved beyond simple main-effect models. The importance of controlling for confounding variables has been underscored. However, prenatal substance exposure is still often studied within a teratology model where the main goal is the search for unique effects of a specific drug or substance. Based on this review it is suggested that an appropriate model for understanding the development of drug-exposed children cannot be based on a main-effect perspective. Rather, such a model must evolve from a contextual perspective, and it is suggested that a transactional model, where both potential risk factors and protective factors are considered, should replace the traditional teratology model in this field.     

Looking Ahead: Questions for and About Behavioral Scientists and Practitioners

In this article Robin B. Jarrett reflects on the early years in which female investigators were a minority in the field and on her participation in the Trailblazers' panel discussion at the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies on November 29, 2009. Dr. Jarrett writes these reflections in the form of a letter to current and future professionals (of all demographics) dedicated to behavioral science and its practice; she poses questions about what the future may hold.