Coping-related expectancies and dispositions as prospective predictors of coping responses and symptoms

We used Rotter's (1954, 1982) social learning theory and Kirsch's (1985, 1999) response expectancy extension thereof to clarify distinctions between coping-related expectancies (beliefs about the outcomes of coping efforts) and coping dispositions (tendencies to use particular coping responses), specifically focusing on the role of generalized expectancies for negative mood regulation (NMR) as a predictor of individual differences in coping and well-being. Two studies using structural equation modeling provided support for direct and indirect associations between NMR expectancies and symptoms of depression. In Study 1 NMR expectancies predicted situational avoidance coping responses and symptoms of depression and anxiety, independent of dispositional avoidance coping tendencies. In Study 2, NMR expectancies were associated with depressive symptoms, concurrently and prospectively, independent of dispositional optimism and pessimism. Both studies indicated that NMR expectancies are more strongly associated with depressive symptoms than with symptoms of anxiety and physical illness. Results underscore the importance of distinguishing between expectancies and other personality variables related to coping.     

Pessimistic self-preoccupation, performance deficits, and depression

Three studies are presented testing a model of the cognitive performance deficits shown in depression. The model proposes that such deficits occur as an interaction of expectancy and focus of attention variables, that is, in the presence of both low expectancy of success and high self-focus. Study 1 was a pilot study which documented that depressed undergraduates evidence poorer anagram performance, greater self-focus, and lower pretask expectancies than do nondepressed subjects. Study 2 showed that nondepressed undergraduates evidence performance deficits only when both expectancy is lowered and self-focus is increased. Study 3 suggested that depressed undergraduates' performance deficits are overcome either by lowering self-focus or by raising expectancy. Discussed are discrepancies between self-report and performance data, the relevance of these studies to the test anxiety literature, the need to integrate literature concerning the effects of depression, anxiety, and self-esteem on performance, and how the interactive roles of positive expectancy and focus of attention may be related to effective coping in a variety of situations.     

The relationship of negative mood regulation expectancies with rumination and distraction

Individuals high in negative mood regulation expectancies believe that a wide variety of actions has the potential to improve their negative mood. According to response expectancy theory, negative mood regulation expectancies affect mood in a nonvolitional and self-confirming manner. The present study evaluated this claim by assessing the ability of negative mood regulation expectancies to predict current depression after controlling for a variety of volitional coping responses, including rumination, distraction, active coping, and avoidant coping. 105 Introduction to Psychology college students at the University of Connecticut, 47 men and 58 women (M age = 20.3 yr., SD = 1.5), completed measures of each of the latter constructs for course credit. Results were consistent with response expectancy theory: negative mood regulation expectancies predicted current depression above and beyond coping behaviors. In addition, higher negative mood regulation expectancies were associated with greater use of adaptive coping responses. Results of this study further support the notion that effects of negative mood regulation expectancies on mood cannot be fully accounted for by intentional coping behaviors.     

The effects of instructional set on physiological response to stressful imagery

Centrally mediated or cognitive variables have received considerable attention in clinical research. With the establishment of the effectiveness of such specific treatment techniques as systematic desensitization (Paul. 1969a. 1969b). a question arises as to the influence of cognitions on process and outcome variables in such learning based treatments (Lang. 1971). Research investigating the influence of demand characteristics and subject expectancies has demonstrated such centrally mediated variables can significantly influence overt, behavioral and self-report measures of fear, stress, or anxiety (cf. Borkovec. 1972: Marcia. Rubin and Efran. 1969; McGlynn. Maelia and Nawas. 1969: McGlynn. Reynolds and Linder. 1971: Oliveau. Agras. Leitenberg and Wright. 1969; Rappaport. 1972: Rosen. 1974).However. Borkovec (1972) and Rappaport (1972) failed to obtain expectancy effects on physiological measures of anxiety. Neither investigation provided for an independent assessment of subjects' actual expectancies, or belief in the instructions, as recommended by Davison and Wilson (1973). Borkovec administered clinical procedures over four sessions and varied the information communicated about the ‘purpose’ of the treatments (physiological versus therapeutic instructions). Differential rationales for differential expectancies of physiological reactivity were not provided. After each session, subjects reviewed the same false physiological records depicting reductions in fear responses. Although these changes were explained either physiologically or therapeutically. the fact that such reductions were emphasized should have attenuated differences between groups. Rappaport (1972) exposed subjects to a fearful stimulus and varied the suggestion and rationale for the pseudotreatment: no expectancy (stress research): therapeutic expectancy (fear reduction); and negative expectancy (fear increase). The lack of an independent assessment of the expectancy manipulation, as well as the exclusion of a specific therapeutic procedure, make it impossible to interpret the results in relation to expectancy effects on physiological fear responses during the administration of therapeutic procedures. There is other evidence, however, that suggestion and instructional set can significantly influence somatic and autonomic response systems (Barber. 1961. 1965; Sternbach. 1964. 1965).The primary purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of instructional set on physiological responses to stressful imagery. This was an early step in a research program investigating the effects of instructional and informational variables on physiological responses of clinical interest. One half of the subjects received abbreviated live relaxation training (R) as described m a manual by Bernstein and Borkovec (1972) and based upon the original work of Jacobson (1938). The other half received an inert placebo pill and undertook a target detection task (P). The latter procedure was similar to that used by Paul (1966). Although both procedures had previously been shown to have relaxing effects, the P task was included as an additional control for any potential effects specific to the tension-release procedure of R. In order to evaluate the effects of instructional set, one half of each of the above two groups received instructions designed to lead to an expectancy of response inhibition to stressful imagery by the respective procedure (Decrease Stress Response. DSR). while the other half received instructions designed to lead to an expectancy of an increased response to stressful imagery by the respective procedure (Increase Stress Response. ISR). Each subject visualized three individually specified items that were the most frightening scenes imaginable prior to training and four times after training visualized the scene producing the largest response. Considerable effort was devoted to eliciting from each subject the most frightening items possible for her. and it was clear from subject comments that the items did elicit negative emotional responses.Since previous research (Barber. 1961. 1965; Sternbach. 1964. 1965) indicated that instructional set can influence physiological reactivity, it was hypothesized the DSR) subjects should exhibit a greater reduction in emotional response from pre- to posttraining than ISR subjects.     

Immunity and health after bereavement in relation to coping

Coping was examined as an intervening variable between the stressor of bereavement and its effects on subjective health and immunity in thirty-nine recently bereaved Norwegian women. Coping was defined as: "positive response outcome expectancies". Data were collected approximately one month after the death of the husband, and twelve months thereafter. Data collected were: expected coping success (self-scoring), subjective health (UHI), anxiety and depression (GWB), and immunoglobulins (IgA, IgM, IgG) with components (C3, C4). Statistics were: frequencies, paired t -test, ANOVA, and MANOVA. Permissions and confidentiality were in accordance with the Helsinki-declaration. Coping was found to be related strongly to health and to health changes. Few relations were found between immunity and health. Coping, health, and anxiety and depression formed a triangle of interrelations. It was concluded that coping defined as "positive response outcome expectancies" may be a predictor of the adaptational outcome after a crisis.     

Response expectancy versus response hope in predicting birth‐related emotional distress and pain

Response expectancies and response hopes have been shown to be two distinct constructs with important implications for nonvolitional outcomes. More specifically, studies show that response expectancies: (1) are sufficient to cause nonvolitional outcomes, (2) are not mediated by other psychological variables, and (3) are self‐confirming while seemingly automatic. A new programmatic research line has differentiated between people's response expectancies and their response hopes regarding nonvolitional outcomes and showed that even if response hope and response expectancy are separate constructs, they are not unrelated. These concepts have not yet been studied in pregnant women. Moreover, determining the causal factors that best explain the variance of emotional distress and pain in pregnancy is of great importance. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the interrelations between response expectancy and response hope in pregnant women with respect to (1) emotional distress prior to giving birth and (2) pain during giving birth. Additionally, self‐reported labor hours were analyzed as a secondary outcome. Results show that response expectancy for pain directly predicts pain, and that the discrepancy between response hopes and response expectancies is a strong predictor of investigated outcomes. Thus, our results support the idea that preventive psychological interventions for pregnant women should emphasize adjusting response expectancies and response hopes regarding the pain and emotional distress associated with giving birth. We believe that the results have both theoretical and practical implications and the topic deserves further investigation.     

Automaticity in clinical psychology.

The authors provide an overview of the literature on the ability of response expectancies to elicit automatic responses in the form of self-fulfilling prophecies and link it to the broader psychological investigation of automatic processes. The authors review 3 areas of research in which response expectancies have been shown to affect experience, behavior, and physiology: placebo effects, the effects of false biofeedback on sexual arousal, and the alteration of perceptual and cognitive functions by hypnotic and nonhypnotic suggestion. Also reviewed are data suggesting that all behavior, including novel and intentional behavior, is initiated automatically. Following this review, the authors summarize some of the ways in which knowledge of response expectancy effects and other automatic processes that influence experience and behavior can enhance clinical practice.     

Understanding perfectionism and depression in an adult clinical population: Is outcome expectancy relevant to psychological functioning?

Perfectionism is a personality trait defined by high standards of performance, which has been identified as a risk factor for major depressive disorder (MDD). The present study examined if outcome expectancy involved in perfectionism differs for individuals with depression compared to non-depressed controls, and how outcome expectancy relates to depression symptoms. This study included 49 depressed and 42 non-depressed participants. Perfectionism and depression severity were measured via self-report instruments. This study is the first to provide preliminary evidence that outcome expectancies involved in perfectionism may be related to psychological functioning in depression. Individuals with depression demonstrated higher negative and lower positive outcome expectancies associated with perfectionism compared to non-depressed participants. Perfectionism outcome expectancies are also related to depression severity and symptoms. Future research should prospectively investigate relationships of outcome expectancy involved in perfectionism in individuals at risk for depression.     

The effect of individual differences and manipulated life expectancies on the willingness to engage in sexual coercion

The role of the individual difference variables of mate value, short-term and long-term mating preferences, and life history strategy along with the manipulated variable of life expectancy were used to predict differences in the willingness to engage in sexually coercive behaviors. Short-term preferences and long-term preferences were correlated with the willingness to engage in sexual coercion at all life expectancies. Life history strategy was correlated with the willingness to engage in sexual coercion at only the shortest and longest life expectancies. Most importantly short-term and long-term mating preferences interacted with life expectancy to predict the willingness to engage in sexually coercive behaviors. Short life expectancies increased willingness in individuals with high short-term and low long-term preferences. The results are discussed in terms of the varying theories of sexual coercion with emphasis put on a life history approach.     

Self-Reported Alcohol Expectancies and Postdrinking Sexual Inferences About Women1

In evaluating dating scenarios, perceivers tend to infer more sexual responsiveness for drinking than nondrinking daters. The origin of these postdrinking sexual inferences has not previously been examined. In the present study, we considered whether perceivers' alcohol expectancies would influence these inferences. Male and female subjects completed a brief expectancy measure, read a vignette depicting a beer-drinking or cola-drinking woman, and evaluated the targeted woman. Multiple-regression equations were computed to test a replication hypothesis and an interaction hypothesis. In support of the replication hypothesis, subjects rated the beer-drinking woman as more sexual than her cola-drinking counterpart. In support of the interaction hypothesis, male but not female subjects exhibited the predicted expectancy by drink interaction. High expectancy men but not low expectancy men rated the beer-drinking woman as more likely to engage in sexual behaviors than the cola-drinking woman. This finding was evident on behaviorally specific measures, but not on trait-like measures. The roles of stereotypes and alcohol expectancies as determinants of post-drinking sexual inferences are discussed.     

Combined expectancy effects are modulated by the relation between expectancy cues

Studies of combined expectancies have shown that spatial cueing effects are reduced on trials on which participants have to respond with an unexpected motor response. In the first two experiments the range of reduced expectancy effects is examined. Advance knowledge of the likely response was combined in a trial-by-trial procedure with modality cueing, object cueing, and task cueing. Effects of modality cueing were reduced on trials on which the target requested an unexpected response. However, effects of object cueing as well as effects of task cueing were unaffected by response cueing. Comparing experiments revealed that different types of cues were used in different experiments. To test the effect of type of cue on the interaction of expectancies the third experiment combined spatial cueing with response cueing. When integrated cues were used that cued the likely target location by an arrow and the likely response by an arrow too, spatial cueing effects were reduced on trials with unexpected responses. However, spatial cueing effects remained unaffected by response cueing when separated cues were used consisting in a word cueing the response and an arrow cueing target location. An account for the modulation of combined expectancies by the relation between cues is suggested in terms of the adjusted expectancy model.     

Alcohol Consumption, Outcome Expectancies, and Victimization Status Among Female College Students

The present study examined differences in the extent of alcohol consumption and endorsement of alcohol-related outcome expectancies between victims of alcohol- or drug-related sexual assault, victims of non-alcohol- or non-drug-related sexual assault, and nonvictim controls. The alcohol consumption patterns alcohol outcome expectancies and victimization status of 176 female college students were assessed. Results indicated that relative to nonvictims and victims of non-alcohol- or non-drug-related sexual assault, victims of alcohol- or drug-related sexual assault reported more frequent and greater alcohol consumption and a greater extent of endorsement of alcohol outcome expectancies. Furthermore. extent of alcohol consumption was associated with different alcohol expectancy outcomes for each group. Implications for the prevention of sexual assault and directions for future research are discussed.     

Task relevance modulates processing of distracting emotional stimuli

Relatively little is known about the integration of people's fear-related dispositions and their expectations about stressful events. This research used information integration theory to examine how participants’ anxiety sensitivity and event expectancy are integrated to determine their social anxiety. Three studies were conducted—two with university students and one with anxiety clinic patients—in which participants were presented with multiple scenarios of a socially embarrassing event, each representing a different degree of event probability, from which subjective expectancies were derived. Independent variables included anxiety sensitivity (low, moderate, high) and event expectancy (low, medium, high, no probability information). Participants were asked to indicate their anxiety (dependent measure) in each expectancy condition in this 3 × 4 mixed, quasi-experimental design. The results of all three studies strongly suggest that anxiety sensitivity and event expectancy are integrated additively to produce social anxiety. Additional results and their implications for the treatment of anxiety-related disorders are also discussed.     

Impact of Experimentally Induced Positive and Anxious Mood on Alcohol Expectancy Strength in Internally Motivated Drinkers

The effects of musically‐induced positive and anxious mood on explicit alcohol‐related cognitions (alcohol expectancy strength) in 47 undergraduate students who consume alcohol either to enhance positive mood states (for enhancement motives) or to cope with anxiety (for anxiety‐related coping motives) were investigated. Pre‐ and post‐mood induction, participants completed the emotional reward and emotional relief subscales of the Alcohol Craving Questionnaire – Now. The hypothesis that anxiety‐related coping motivated drinkers in the anxious mood condition (but not those in the positive mood condition) would exhibit increases in strength of explicit emotional relief alcohol expectancies after the mood induction was supported. An additional, unanticipated finding was that enhancement‐motivated drinkers in the anxious condition also showed significant increases in strength of explicit emotional relief (but not emotional reward) alcohol expectancies. The hypothesis that enhancement‐motivated (but not anxiety‐related coping motivated) participants would exhibit increases in explicit emotional reward expectancies following exposure to the positive mood induction procedure was not supported. Taken together with past research findings, the current results highlight the importance of distinguishing between subtypes of negative affect (i.e., anxious and depressed affect) in exploring the affective antecedents of explicit alcohol outcome expectancies.     

Combining Expectancies

Five experiments examine the combined effects of spatial and non-spatial cues on the latency of an orientation judgement. In Experiment 1 an interaction between position and form expectancies is observed: There is an unusual delay in response time (RT) when expectancies mismatch—that is, when an unexpected (uncued) form appears at an expected (cued) position or an expected (cued) form appears at an unexpected (uncued) position. This interaction is inconsistent with the spatial spotlight model's prediction that position and form expectancy effects will be additive. The position-form interaction is eliminated when target position discriminability is made difficult by adding a distractor item at the location not containing a target (Experiment 2) or by decreasing the validity of the positional cue (Experiment 3). Decreasing the validity of the form cue has no effect on the interaction. The mismatching expectancy interaction is not unique to combinations of position and form—it is also observed when temporal (Experiment 4) and colour (Experiment 5) expectancies are combined with form expectancies. The effects of advance knowledge of position therefore suggest no special status for location compared to other stimulus attributes. Thus, at least for combined expectancies, the notion of a uniquely spatial mental spotlight seems unjustified. It is hypothesized that expectancy interactions may reflect a hierarchical crosstalk relation between dimensions of encoding.     

Conditioning, expectancy, and the placebo effect: comment on Stewart-Williams and Podd (2004)

Classical conditioning is included as a component in the response expectancy model of placebo responding. Though introspectable when attention is drawn to them, expectancies need not be in awareness while guiding behavior. Most placebo effects are linked to expectancies, and classical conditioning is one factor (but not the only factor) by which these expectancies can be produced and altered. Conditioned placebo effects without expectancies exist but are relatively rare in humans. The adaptive advantage of cognition is increased response flexibility. For it to convey that benefit, however, it must be capable of overriding the influence of simpler automatic processes. Thus, the higher up the phylogenetic scale, the smaller the role of nonconscious conditioning processes and the larger the role of cognition.     

Compensatory and non‐compensatory multidimensional randomized item response models

Randomized response (RR) models are often used for analysing univariate randomized response data and measuring population prevalence of sensitive behaviours. There is much empirical support for the belief that RR methods improve the cooperation of the respondents. Recently, RR models have been extended to measure individual unidimensional behaviour. An extension of this modelling framework is proposed to measure compensatory or non‐compensatory multiple sensitive factors underlying the randomized item response process. A confirmatory multidimensional randomized item response theory model (MRIRT) is proposed for the analysis of multivariate RR data by modelling the response process and specifying structural relationships between sensitive behaviours and background information. A Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithm is developed to estimate simultaneously the parameters of the MRIRT model. The model extension enables the computation of individual true item response probabilities, estimates of individuals’ sensitive behaviour on different domains, and their relationships with background variables. An MRIRT analysis is presented of data from a college alcohol problem scale, measuring alcohol‐related socio‐emotional and community problems, and alcohol expectancy questionnaire, measuring alcohol‐related sexual enhancement expectancies. Students were interviewed via direct or RR questioning. Scores of alcohol‐related problems and expectancies are significantly higher for the group of students questioned using the RR technique. Alcohol‐related problems and sexual enhancement expectancies are positively moderately correlated and vary differently across gender and universities.     

Effects of coping skills training on generalized self-efficacy and locus of control

A number of studies have shown that mastery experiences strengthen self-efficacy expectancies that are specific to the mastery situation. In this study I assessed the effects of cognitive-behavioral coping skills training on generalized expectancies concerning self-efficacy and locus of control in test-anxious college students. Compared with a waiting-list control group, the trained subjects exhibited significant decreases on trait and state measures of test anxiety and a higher level of academic performance on classroom tests, as well as changes in specific self-efficacy expectancies relating to test-anxiety management and academic performance. Consistent with generalization predictions derived from self-efficacy theory, the coping skills group also exhibited decreases in general trait anxiety and increased scores on a trait measure of generalized self-efficacy. Locus of control was unaffected by the program, and changes in general self-efficacy were unrelated to changes in locus of control, suggesting the possibility that different parameters of experience are related to changes in the two types of generalized expectancies.     

“I Love You,Man”: Overt Expressions of Affection in Male Male Interaction

Despite the importance of affectionatecommunication for relational development andmaintenance, individuals expressing affection incur anumber of risks, including possible misinterpretation ofthe expressions as sexual overtures. These risks appear to bemagnified in the male-male relationship, where overtexpressions of affection may be all but prohibited bynormative expectancies. The present study examines expectancies for appropriate male-maleaffection. Although empirical research supports the ideathat overt affection is considered less appropriate inmale-male relationships than in relationships with women, it also suggests that three variablesmay moderate this expectancy: relationship type,emotional intensity of the context, and privacy level ofthe context. An experimental procedure with 140 men (approximately 95% caucasian) confirmed themoderating effects of these variables.     

Expect the unexpected: ability, attitude, and responsiveness to hypnosis

Participants' expectancies and hypnotic performance throughout the course of a standardized, individually administered hypnotic protocol were analyzed with a structural equation model that integrated underlying ability, expectancy, and hypnotic response. The model examined expectancies and ability as simultaneous predictors of hypnotic responses as well as hypnotic responses as an influence on subsequent expectancies. Results of the proposed model, which fit very well, supported each of the 4 major hypothesized effects: Expectancies showed significant stability across the course of the hypnosis protocol; expectancies influenced subsequent hypnotic responses, controlling for latent ability; hypnotic responses, in turn, affected subsequent expectancies; and a latent trait underlay hypnotic responses, controlling for expectancies. Although expectancies had a significant effect on hypnotic responsiveness, there was an abundance of variance in hypnotic performance unexplained by the direct or indirect influence of expectation and compatible with the presence of an underlying cognitive ability.